This page contains an image, involving human anatomy, that some may regard as offensive or inappropriate. It is included because it is (1) funny, (2) apt, (3) addresses a feature of the human condition, namely that we belong to the natural system of the animals, and of the mammals in particular, and (4) it is aesthetically appealing. People who find this disturbing or objectionable may wish to read about decadence instead. Otherwise, see the note for Mammalia in the example classification for Homo sapiens below. To view this page without the frame above, click here.
The following list covers, as far as I can determine, every living thing, not always down to much detail, of course. This is an idiosyncratic and likely a dated treatment. Idiosyncratic mainly because of the system of Superkingdoms and Kingdoms, which are novel, as explained. Dated because most of my original sources are getting a little old. I would like to keep up with the research and to update this page in a timely fashion, but I can't make this a full-time job and devote the attention it would require. Parts get updated as particular things come to my attention, sometimes in relation to matters that diverge off into other issues, such as bureaucracy or human sexuality. Since the purpose of the page is to give a general idea and an impression of the diversity of life, this is not harmed by not everything being up to date. As awareness of the variety, age, and history of life is part of the basic motivation and evidence for the theory of Evolution by natural selection, it does not need to be entirely current to annoy the right people. On the other hand, the notion of the superiority of modern life over ancient (both biological and cultural) is bound to annoy other kinds of people, although the full treatment of the matter is to be found elsewhere.
My first exposure to the big picture of life was in The Wellsprings of Life by the late and beloved Isaac Asimov [Signet Science Library, 1960], which I had assigned in a freshman Anthropology class at the University of New Mexico in 1967. Another favorite old book was Evolution of the Vertebrates by Edwin H. Colbert [John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1955, 1969], which I had found while in high school. Both books may be too out of date, especially Colbert -- although my affection for them persists and I still have them at hand. But the source I have initially used the most here is Five Kingdoms, An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth by Lynn Margulis and Karlene V. Schwartz [W.H. Freeman and Company, 1982] -- a book that itself is likely to be rather dated, although not as much so and the issues are current.
The earliest ideas about the ultimate classification of material things may be like what we see at left, a division that we still hear occasionally, between animal, vegetable, and mineral. This won't do as a division of life, of course, since the "mineral" part is inanimate. 
Reducing this to "animal and vegetable" isn't exactly a revolution in biology, so that the steps are to notice that bacteria are very different from complex plants and animals, while eventually fungi began to look fundamentally different from regular, photosynethic plants. Whether fungi had a common ancestor, perhaps independent of plants, would need to wait for genetic studies.
The five Kingdoms of Margulis and Schwartz are Monera, Protoctista (instead of Protista), Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia, as we see at left where the protozoans have been separated from both animals and bacteria. The source of the "seven Kingdoms" idea on this page was a Scientific American article on the "archaebacteria," anaerobic and other peculiar bacteria that are like those that preexisted the oxygenation of the Earth's atmosphere [C. R. Woese, "Archaebacteria," Scientific American, June 1981, pp.98-122]. In a genealogy of life, these are importantly different from later bacteria.
Superkingdom Progenotes*.....first cells Superkingdom Archaebacteriae Kingdom Protomonera.......archaic bacteria Superkingdom Eubacteria Kingdom Monera............bacteria Superkingdom Urkaryotes* Superkingdom Eukaryotes......cells with nuclei Kingdom Protista..........protozoans Kingdom Myxomycophyta.....slime molds Kingdom Plantae...........plants Kingdom Fungi.............fungi Kingdom Animalia..........animals |
The first book I saw on all this was The Third Domain, the Untold Story of Archaea and the Future of Biotechnology, by Tim Friend [Joseph Henry Press, Washington, 2007]. The chart at left is featured in Friend's book [p.11] with a division based on DNA studies. I have added color to highlight the differences, with the assumption that it is Archaebacteria at the "Origin," since they were necessarily anaerobic in an early atmosphere of little oxygen. [note]
The idea of the three living Superkingdoms that I have used here is intended to represent the new understanding of the three large divisions of life, with two extinct Superkingdoms for transitional forms that now no longer exist. The Superkingdoms are thus based on the stages in the evolution of structure of the cell. Eukaryotic cells not only contain distinct nuclei but have organelles, small bodies like mitochondria and chloroplasts. Since such organelles can contain their own genetic material, they may well have originated as separate organisms that came to live as symbiotes in host cells. Instead of "Superkingdoms," it has already been suggested that the three living highest divisions of life be called "Domains." Since "superkingdom" is not otherwise used, and I have added extinct categories, I would prefer "Superkingdom" over "Domain," but we shall see what catches on or is formally adopted.
It also occurred in the Scientific American article that slime molds were rather different from what might have been associated with them earlier, the fungi or protista -- Margulis and Schwartz note that such separate classification can occur but don't themselves give slime molds a separate Kingdom. With the new genetic studies, as displayed in Friend's book, a number of branches of life appear to be on about equal footing with slime molds, plants, animals, and fungi. This could result in a great multiplication of Kingdoms, with six divisions instead of one for the Protista just within the Eukaryotes. The following diagram from Friend's book [p.63] is more clearly labelled and does not leave unidentified branches as in the first diagram. For the moment, I will resist the tempation to multiply the Kingdoms further -- holding at seven with only two added to Margulis and Schwartz for the Archaebacteria (preferentially "Archaea" in recent usage) and slime molds. If organelles originate as symbiotes within the Eukaryotes, it is always possible that some of them were from the Eubacteria, which complicates a simple branching tree of life. I have not yet attempted to adjust the main table below in light of the new information. It still reflects what I gathered from the earlier sources.
The basic elements of the system of classification are in bold text below: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and species. The elaboration of this into so many intermediate categories now has progressed very far. The following table illustrates the levels of classification for human beings (Homo sapiens). I have modified this table in light of a recent article in Science News [March 29, 2003] that there has been a division introduced for the Primates since the work in other sources. Tarsiers have now been removed from the Prosimians and grouped with monkeys and apes. The division between this group (the Haplorhines) and the rest of the Primates (the Strepsirrhines) has even been dated, with DNA techniques, to between 80 and 90 million years ago. This puts the groups in the range of Suborders. So I have introduced them at that level, bumping the previous Suborders and Infraorders down one step. This could be conveniently done, since the Parvorder level not had previously been used. I have also seen in a National Geographic Magazine article on the mammals [April 2003] that recent DNA studies have radically regrouped the divisions of placential mammals [pp.14-15]. We get four broad groups, Afrotheria, Xenarthra, Laurasiatheria, and Euarchontoglires. These groups match up with the way in which the Jurassic supercontinent, Pangaea, broke up (or reconnected, between Eurasia and Africa) over millions of years, with the groups corresponding, respectively, to Africa, South America, Eurasia and North American (i.e. Laurasia), and Eurasia and Africa. As it happens these divisions can easily be incorporated as Superorders. Previously, I had only used one Superorder (Placentalia) under the Infraclass Eutheria, but this was not logically meaningful, since it was coextensive. The Eutheria were already the placentials. Now this gives us more interesting distinctions. I cannot know from the National Geographic information where some Orders, especially extinct ones, would belong, so I have simply left them under Laurasiatheria, which is the largest group.
Few of the old taxonomic ranks of organisms (Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species) are used by modern biologists and paleontologists. While terms like 'the dog family' and 'Class Aves' still get bandied about, reserachers are increasingly abandoning them since they don't have clear equivalents between groups. [p.11]
Instead of the traditional ranks, Hone indiscriminately uses "clades" (κλάδοι, singular κλάδος, "branch," particularly a branch broken off) or "groups" for everything beyond Genera and species, although we do find the curious expression "major groups," glossed as "previously called families" [p.39]. A Family hardly seems like a "major group" in terms of the traditional hierarchy. But then Hone uses the term "major groups" to refer to the "albertosaurines" and "tyrannosaurines," which would be subfamilies, not families [p.47]. This shifting and confusion is just what we would expect from Hone's new attitude.
Now, in doing this Hone endorses the new techniques of "cladistic analysis" [p.45], without really explaining very much about them to us. And, of course, it would be nice to see the traditional ranks, originally with no more than subjective motivations, brought up to date with more rigorous definitions, as in percentages of common DNA or in terms of time lapsed since a common ancestor (as in the diagram below). But completely erasing the traditional ranks has a taste both of nihilism and of the kind of arrogance that summarily tossed out Brontosaurus from the taxonomy -- a sin that is all too evident in Hone himself, who refers to "famous names (such as Diplodocus, Stegosaurus, Allosaurus, and Apatosaurus)" [pp.26-27], where, of course, there was nothing "famous" about "Apatosaurus" until Brontosaurus fossils were stolen for it. Late in his book, Hone does work Brontosaurus into a list of Sauropods, without comment, perhaps because he has become aware that the name has returned to the favored graces of paleontology.
If cladistic diagrams can be developed with some rigor, this is an excellent development. Biologists, however, are unlikely to recall that the result, with binary divisions, looks like one of the oldest techniques in logic, the Porphyrian Tree, whose conception really goes back to Plato but is named after the Neoplatonist Porphyry, who described it in his Isagoge, the "Introduction" to Aristotle's Organon of logical works. It is in Porphyry that the nomenclature of "genus and species," which goes back to Aristotle and which Hone admits is still used in biology, is formally established. And for Porphyry, all the levels of generality (generalitas) above species (pl. species) are genera (sing. genus). The first genus, however, is the "promixate" genus, while all the others are "remote" genera [cf. Basic Logic, Raymond J. McCall, Barnes & Noble, 1952, 1967, p.8]. So the cladistic diagrams we see now are simply ranks of remote genera, and the remaining taxonomic rank of "Genus" is the proximate genus.
In these terms, the traditional ranks of "Kingdom," etc., were simply trying to give us some perspective on how general our generalities were. 
If Hone can refer to the Ornithischian and Saurischian dinosaurs as "clades" rather than "Orders" [p.39], this does leave us with no sense of how many layers of remote genera we have traversed from the species. But he also continues to use the forms of traditional terminology, like "Tryannosauridae," without telling us that the "-idae" suffix, from the Greek patronymic, was always used distinctively for the names of biological Families. Obscuring these principles is not helpful. A name like "Tyrannosauridae" pins the system to a reference point. How many divisions we then need below the Family level depends on the situation. This is where cladistic analysis will help; but with our reference points at Family and Genus, we can fill in as many levels as we need, with reasonable terminology. This sort of thing is evident at several points on this page.
The confusion that can result from Hone's approach is evident in his own list of the Genera and species of the Tyrannosauroidea [p.54], which I have reproduced below with appropriate ranks. All the "clades" are lumped together by Hone in the same column, with the elimination of the Family "Tyrannosauridae" as, evidently, redundant. What this means is that we cannot use Hone's own table to construct the relationships that we see in Hone's own earlier diagram of the Tyrannosauroidea [p.13 -- shown in the paragraph above, with glosses in red, blue, and purple]. This is not helpful, and it demonstrates the usefulness of the traditional ranks. They do provide an orientation, and ideally they enable us go back and forth between a cladistic diagram and the taxonomic names.
Thus, I will continue wtih the traditional ranks, however subjective the assignments must sometimes be. David Hone unintentionally demonstrates the drawbacks of giving them up. 
However, I now see a use of "clade" that is new and helpful. At Wikipedia there is often inserted a "clade" assignment into traditional classifications to indicate descent were this would otherwise not be shown without a diagram. Thus, Mammals are under the "clade" of Synapsida, mammal-like reptiles, because that looks like the point of derivation for Mammals. Otherwise, it is awkward to indicate this since Mammalia is its own Class, while Synapsida is a Subclass of the Class Reptilia. In these terms, we would want to insert a "clade" for Dinosaurs under Infraclass Archosauria, since that is actually where Dinosaurs used to be and it does indicate the probable point of their descent. This is a very useful and innovative use of the "clade" concept. So lets see what this looks like for human beings. Porphyry would be proud:
Superkingdom Eukaryotes
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Infrakingdom Coelomata
Superphylum Deuterostomia, 750-1250 My
Phylum Chordata
Subphylum Vertebrata
Superclass Tetrapoda
Clade Synapsida
Class Mammalia [note]
Subclass Theria
Infraclass Eutheria
Superorder Euarchontoglires
Order Primates, 90-100 My
Suborder Haplorhines, 80-90 My
Infraorder Anthropoidea, 70-80 My
Parvorder Catarrhini, 60-70 My
Superfamily Hominoidea, 50-60 My
Family Hominidae, 40-50 My
Subfamily Anthropinae, 30-40 My
Tribe Hominini, 20-30 My
Genus Homo
species sapiens
variety sapiens
The levels of "parvorder" and "tribe" originally only occurred in one place in the following table, under the Order Passeriformes, perching birds -- though the parvorder is now also used here, as just explained, for the Primates. The classification for these birds is based on another article in Scientific American, which distinguished between the Corvida and the Passerida. The most interesting feature was that the Corvida, ultimately including crows (Genus Corvus), evolved in Australia and, unlike other native Australian life forms, was able to then spread around the world. The use of the "parvorder" and "tribe" levels also went along with an estimation, which is given in the table above, of the time elapsed since separation of the genealogy at that level. With genetic analysis of DNA, this is now a promising means of determining relationships between all life forms and the age of various divisions. If the purpose of the introduction of parvorder and tribe was to allow a steady gradient in time among the level of classification, then perhaps living genera separate at 10-20 million years ago, and species at up to 10 million years ago. It is independently estimated that a species lasts about 5 million years, so that is in the right order of magnitude.
Speaking of the birds, Aves is given here as a Subclass rather than a Class as traditional, based on the idea that birds are dinosaurs, and that dinosaurs should no longer be classified as reptiles. The traditional view of the classification is shown at left, where Dinosauria would be no more than a Superorder, over the two (or three) Orders of dinosaurs, with the derivation of birds subject to agnosticism but generally thought not to be from the dinosaurs. The classification here thus uses Class Endosauropsida for both dinosaurs and birds, borrowing the term from The Hot-Blooded Dinosaurs, by Adrian J. Desmond [Warner Books, 1975, 1977], 
one of the first books I saw with extensive discussion and argument for the warm blooded nature of dinosaurs (and Thecondonts, which here are still left with the reptiles). This idea for the reclassification is shown at right. Later, I would say that the best book that turned up was The Dinosaur Heresies by practicing paleontologist Robert T. Bakker [William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1986] -- a bit of a Wild Child in paleontology, always sporting a bushy beard and battered cowboy hat.
It now seems to be generally accepted that birds are derived from dinosaurs. This motivates putting dinosaurs and birds in the same class. However, the dinosaurs have been gone for 65 million years, birds do seem to have a common ancestor, 
and I therefore tend to think that there is as much justification to separate birds from dinosaurs as mammals from reptiles. So, although I have left Class Endosauropsida in the table below, I am beginning to prefer the grouping shown at left, with three whole classes derived from Reptilia.
In a recent book, My Beloved Brontosaurus, On the Road with Old Bones, New Science, and Our Favorite Dinosaurs [Scientific American/Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2013], the author, Brian Switek, simply classifies birds with dinosaurs under the common Class of Dinosauria. Because of this, he must always refer to dinosaurs proper in the book as "non-avian dinosaurs." The constant repetition of this becomes tedious and is clumsy, unnecessary, and annoying. David Hone, even without the traditional ranks, faces the same problem but avoids quite as much repetition. But Reptiles are not "non-mammalian reptiles" just because mammals are derived from them. By the same token, we could easily preserve Aves as a separate Class because of a unique characteristic, flight, that separates it from the dinosaurs (even modern flightless birds, with vestigial wings, derive from flying birds). Thus, Adrian Desmond's Endosauropsida seems preferable, with Subclasses of Dinosauria and Aves. Or just make them both Classes, as I have just suggested. Birds are birds and dinosaurs are dinosaurs. Birds have pulled dinosaurs out of the Subclass Diapsida into their own Sublass or Class.
Taking part of David Hone's diagram from page 66, we can consider some of the difficulties involved. The only actual change I have made here is to place the node of "dinosaurs" above the branch for Pterosaurs, as well as where Hone has it, below. In the main list, I do have the Pterosaurs as an Order of dinosaurs. Hone's own diagram makes it look like this is essentially an arbitrary decision, since he does have Pterosaurs as at least the most closely related Archosaurs to the dinosaurs. The bigger difference, of course, is that I have considered how to assign the traditions taxonomic ranks to the diagram, while Hone does not need to. We can elevate the Dinosauria from what would have been a traditional Superorder to a Subclass or even a Class in its own right. This may look odd, having a Class as essentially a subdivision of the Infraclass Archosauria, but then Aves was itself always considered a Class, and now there is little doubt that it derives from the Theropods (as shown). The previous uncertainty about its derivation helped it status as a Class, but then mammals were a Class also, and there was much less doubt about their derivation from the mammal-like reptiles. We must certainly think that Class status goes with radical modifications in morphology and physiology. How this is to be quantified is a good question. Even DNA analysis may not show much in the way of large differences. Or it may. In any case, what we subjectively perceive as "radical modifications" is likely to be something that can be given a mathematical expression in time, removing the subjective element.
Brian Switek's book stands as a loving farewell to the Brontosaurus that he knew in childhood. The name had been abolished in an obscurantist rage to replace it with Apatosaurus, and Switek consistently only refers to "Brontosaurus" with scare quotes. However, Switek's treatment is compromised by two things. 
One is that a number of paleontologists, like Robert Bakker and Stephen J. Gould, continued to use the name Brontosaurus, on the principle that usage can overrule temporal priority. Switek doesn't even discuss this dissent, despite his purported love for Brontosaurus. What now also compromises Switek is that the rejection of Brontosaurus has been reversed, allowing that Brontosaurus and Apatosaurus are different genera. See further discussion below and the list of genera.
One of the great features of Bakker's book is his explanation of the evidence for the large sauropod dinosaurs being able to raise up on their hind legs. As with Brontosaurus at right, it is easy to see the long processes out of the top of the vertebrae [pp.191-192]. The only purpose for such things is muscle attachments. Their length indicates the leverage that the muscles need to function, and the only reasonable function is to raise up the body.
While the idea of these dinosaurs rearing up has become general knowledge, the evidence for it has not. This is clear in the movie Jurassic Park, where a Brachiosaurus is shown rearing up. However, Bakker shows the skeleton of Brachiosaurus also (below), and its vertebrae do not have the same long processes as Brontosaurus. Brachiosaurus has longer front legs and a relatively longer neck. It is thus adapted to high feeding without rearing up. The makers of Jurassic Park missed this, or ignored it. In the entrance hall of the American Museum of Natural History, in New York City, a Barosaurus is displayed rearing up -- with its conspicuous processes.
Meanwhile, other paleontologists simply don't believe that sauropods like this could even raise their heads, much less raise their whole bodies. One argument seems to be simple disbelief that the circulatory system could handle the low blood pressure that would result from the raised head. That there isn't a shred of evidence about what such circulatory systems were, and that giraffes have no trouble raising their heads for what are probably similar purposes of feeding (with physiological adaptations for the changes in blood pressure as the head is raised and lowered), doesn't seem to matter. I have not noticed any suggestions about what the long sauropod neck would have been for, if it was not for high level feeding. Perhaps sauropods needed to stick their heads in through windows. Bakker links the predominance of sauropods in the Jurassic with the absence of low level vegetation, while in the Cretaceous, the rise of flowering plants, with their low level leaves, resulted in the decline of sauropods and the predominance of other herbivores who were adapted for low level feeding.
The idea that evolution represents progress is criticized by some scientists, like Stephen J. Gould himself. Gould thinks that "natural selection" contains so many accidental features that we can rarely say that its products are "better" than they might have been with some different outcome. 
There is no telling what kind of intelligent dinosaurs we might have now if they had not been knocked out by an asteroid 65 million years ago. Who are we to think that we are "better" than they might have been? Or, who are we to think that we are better than squids, trilobites, or horseshoe crabs?
The problem with Gould's point of view is that it rejects any possibility that some things are more organized than others. Yet life itself is more organized than inorganic nature. Life can occur because the situation of the Earth allows entropy to decrease rather than increase, increasing order rather than disorder, an unusual situation in the universe (and used by Creationists to deny that evolution is possible). But if the Earth allows order to increase over time, then it is reasonable to say that, barring accidents like the asteroid impacts, life will get more and more organized over time. If dinosaurs had lived, maybe there would be intelligent dinosaurs by now. But squids and horseshoe crabs have lived, quite content and unchanged in their own ancient ecological niches. Other forms of life, however, caught by ecological changes or radiating into new niches, have changed dramatically. With humans, lower entropy not only has occurred with human evolution, but humans now extensively organize Nature around them. We intentionally lower entropy through vast artificial constructions, in comparison to which the earlier artifacts of living things, like beaver dams, look like, well, mole hills. The system of life thus does represent, perhaps to the horror of someone like Stephen J. Gould, a hierarchy. Human beings indeed look like, as Pericles said, the "paragon of animals."
On the other hand, Gould sometimes displays towering good sense. His essay, "Bully for Brontosaurus" [Bully for Brontosaurus, Reflections in Natural History, 1991, W. W. Norton & Company, 1992], addresses the question of whether the genus Brontosaurus should be, or should have been, identified with and renamed Apatosaurus. Both genera had been named by O. C. Marsh, so there was no question of shifting credit for the discoveries. As early as 1903, Elmer Riggs, at the Field Museum of Natural History, argued that the identified Apatosaurus was simply a juvenile Brontosaurus. The American Museum of Natural History, which exhibits a fine Brontosaurus specimen, asserts that the name was "officially changed" because of Riggs' argument, since the naming of Apatosaurus had priority by a couple of years, although certain "writers" continue to use Brontosaurus.
Since I never heard of Apatosaurus until the 1990's, when suddenly authorities were saying that the name that had been used for decades, Brontosaurus, was wrong, this was more than a little perplexing. And since one of the "writers" who continued to argue for Brontosaurus was no less than Stephen Jay Gould, who not only was professionally associated with the American Museum but, after Margaret Meade, was probably the most famous person to be so associated, one would think that the more common name should be given a bit more respect. Indeed, Gould's own argument is that one of the criteria for scientific naming is usage. Since Brontosaurus was the name in common usage of decades, and most people have never heard of Apatosaurus, that should have settled the matter. That it didn't raises the question why the "authorities" should suddenly have decided to switch things around on everyone. My suspicion that it is an example of one of the practical rules of bureaucracy, which is "jerk people around." As noted above, since it now (2015) seems to be the case that Brontosaurus and Apatosaurus actually are different genera, this particular debate seems moot.
Nevertheless, we do see real progress in Paleontology. Gould himself relates his awe and fear in seeing the Tyrannosaurus rex at the American Museum when he was a child. But the Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton at the time was mounted in a clumsy upright stance, leaning back on its tail. This made it seem like the animal would move by waddling along, like a duck, dragging its tail. This was consistent with the general picture of dinosaurs at the time, as slow, stupid, and clumsy.
In the 90's, however, the Museum remounted the Tyrannosaurus, as we see at right, on January 23, 2019, in a way reflecting new ideas about dinosaur physiology and posture (and paid for, doubtlessly to the fury of the political Left, by libertarian and New York resident David Koch, whose name is on the Hall of Saurischian Dinosaurs -- and now on the plaza before the Metropolitan Museum of Art). Thus, with the spine horizontal and the tail elevated, the Tyrannosaurus is probably considerably more terrifying, with its jaws at eye level, than in the older version. There are still paleontologists who think of dinosaurs as slow, and of Tyrannosaurus as only a scavenger, but the visual impression of this creature is very different. "You should be running," is more what we would think, in the immortal words of Selma Blair (who is a firestarter, ἡ πυρκαεύς, genitive πυρκαέως; or perhaps ἡ πυρκαεῖα, see here) from Hellboy [2004].
This is one of the few skeletons of T. rex that has been mounted using the original bones. Displays like this now typically use casts of the original bones, especially when the excavated skeletons are incomplete, as usually is the case with T. Rex, few of whose complete skeletons survive. The use of casts, however, may have substantilly begun with Andrew Carnegie, who distributed casts to many museums of Diplodocus carnegii [1901], which had been named after him, since the discoverer, Jacob Wortman, worked for the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburg. This is a nice example of Gilded Age philanthropy, which both benefited the public and advertised the magnanimity of Andrew Carnegie, who otherwise gets rememebered for the Homestead steel workers strike (1892). He also donated a lake to Princeton University (1906) -- Lake Carnegie, of course. The President of the University at the time, Woodrow Wilson, who would bring Southern Segregation to the Federal Government as President of the United States, and whose ideal of government was rule by irresponsible bureaucrats, told Carnegie, "We needed bread and you gave us cake."
This display of dinosaur reconstructions goes back to the Cyrstal Palace Exposition of 1851, where models of newly named dinosaurs and a variety of ancient reptiles were put on display. When the Crystal Palace was moved to Sydenham in 1854, the animal models were relocated to an island in the lake of what is now Cyrstal Palace Park. The Crystal Palace itself burned down in 1936, during the brief and ill-starred reign of Edward VIII; but the dinosaurs and their island remains, as we see it below, in 2019. Some of the models are not that different from modern reconstructions, particuarly the Plesiosaurus, who some people think has survived as the Loch Ness Monster -- although Plesiosaurs breathed air, which would require frequent enough surfacing as to rule out the Monster, which mostly seems to remain under water. Three Plesiosaurs are in the photo -- the closest with a duck sleeping by its front flipper. Middle right we also see an Ichthyosaurus, which was reconstructed basking like a seal, although it is now understood to be entirely sea-going, in appearance and habits much like modern dolphins, and even giving live birth -- i.e. there are fossils of gestating Ichthyosaurs in utero.
Signature dinosaurs are the Megalosaurus and Iguanodon, seen below. Unfortunately, the British fossils of these dinosaurs were fragmentary, and early reconstructions imagined that they were quadrupeds. Now it is well understood that both dinosaurs, like many others, were bipeds. This mistake may have contributed to the impression that dinosaurs were weak and sluggish like modern reptiles, while bipedalism implies strength, balance, and speed, all of which imply a higher metabolism than crocodiles, for instance, are capable of. It took many decades for this all to be straightened out, and I only noticed in the 1970's that traditional ideas about dinosaurs, such as I saw growing up in the 1950's, were being demolished.
Nevertheless, the Cyrstal Palace dinosaurs have a significant place in the history of paleontology. That an ancient landscape and fauna was substantially different from the modern was a new idea in the 19th century. With these models, people could see how different, even if it was not as different as we think now. Some people have still not gotten used to this, and confused believers (outside Hinduism and Buddhism) still like a literal Biblical chronology of no more then 10,000 years for the history of life, which already is twice the period of most such calculations in the Middle Ages, of which everyone should be reminded every Jewish New Year
The variety of life presented here is one of the basic pieces of evidence for Evolution, since the development of one form of life out of another is a simpler explanation (observing "Ockham's Razor") than having the Creator engage in constant supernatural intervention in order to start off each species (including thousands of beetles) at its ordained time and place. Such a piecemeal job of Creation would have offended the sense of earlier theologians that God would act with simplicity, economy, and elegance -- which we still find Einstein expecting of the laws of nature as conceived by God. Advocates of Creationism and Intelligent Design expend far less criticism on their own theology than they do on Darwinism. The idea that God would not have anticipated and created all of history, coiled like a spring, right from the very beginning, ready to unfold on its own, would have offended philosophers like both Spinoza and Leibniz, who otherwise would not have agreed on much.
The following table is preformatted for a fixed, non-proportional type font (like Courier). This preserves the pattern of the classification and its correspondence to the levels of classification given in the window at the top of the webpage. If desired, that window can be eliminated by moving the boundary line. If the font for the tables that appears on your page is not fixed width (non-proportional), the font should be changed by using the "preferences" menu on your browser. On a computer screen more than 640 pixels wide, the width of the windows can be optimized to include the whole width of the table. Any category followed by an asterisk, "*," by the way, is extinct.
The classification of Bacteria in Mr. Friend's book didn't match up very well with that in my older sources, like Margulis and Schwartz. A correspondent pointed out that the Phylum Proteobacteria did not even occur in the table. Thus, I have now included the Phyla for all Bacteria and subdivisions of the Proteobacteria as they are listed at Wikipedia. I have made some effort to match these up with the higher levels of classification already shown, but I don't know enough details to do this very effectively. I've also added the Wikipedia list of Phyla of Archaea (Archaebacteria), which do not correspond to the older names I had. So I end up with a bit of a hash of older and newer nomenclature. The future of classification is certainly to use mathematical formulae for differences in genetic content. There are genes for basic chemical activities in the cell that are basically shared by all living things. Beyond that we get degrees of difference.
Superkingdom Progenotes*.............................................................earliest cells
Superkingdom Archaebacteriae.............surviving archaic & anaerobic prokaryotic single cell life
Kingdom Protomonera
Superphylum Methanogenes
Phylum Methaneocreatrices............................................methane forming
Genus Methanosarcina
Genus Methanobacterium
Genus Methanococcus
Superphylum Thermoacidophiles.................................chemoautotrophic bacteria
unclassified
Phylum Aphragmabacteria?...................................without normal cell walls
Phylum Thiopneutes?.................................................sulfate reducers
Phylum Crenarchaeota
Phylum Euryarchaeota
Phylum Korarchaeota
Phylum Nanoarchaeota
Superkingdom Eubacteria.......................................advanced prokaryotic single cell life
Kingdom Monera
Superphylum Spirochaetae....................................................spirochetes
Phylum Spirochaetes
Superphylum Purple Photosynthetic Bacteria............anaerobic photosynthetic bacteria
Superphylum Cyanobacteria
Phlyum Cyanobacteria
Superphylum Chloroxybacteria..............................green photosynthetic bacteria
Phlyum Chlorobi
Phlyum Chloroflexi
Superphylum Radiation Resistant Bacteria
Superphylum Micrococci...........................................gram-positive bacteria
unclassified
Phylum Fermenting Bacteria?
Phylum Nitrogen-Fixing Aerobic Bacteria?
Phylum Pseudomonads?
Phylum Aeroendospora?
Phylum Myxobacteria?
Phylum Omnibacteria?
Phylum Acidobacteria
Phlyum Actinobacteria
Phlyum Aquificae
Phlyum Bacteroidetes
Phlyum Chlamydiae
Phlyum Chrysiogenetes
Phlyum Deferribacteres
Phlyum Deinococcus-Thermus
Phlyum Dictyoglomi
Phlyum Fibrobacteres
Phlyum Firmicutes
Phlyum Fusobacteria
Phlyum Gemmatimonadetes
Phlyum Nitrospirae
Phlyum Planctomycetes
Phlyum Proteobacteria
Class Alpha Proteobacteria
Order Caulobacterales...............................Caulobacter
Order Kordiimonadales
Order Parvularculales
Order Rhizobiales......................................Rhizobia
Order Rhodobacterales
Order Rhodospirillales..............................Acetobacter
Order Rickettsiales..................................Rickettsia
Order Sphingomonadales.............................Sphingomonas
Class Beta Proteobacteria
Order Burkholderiales................................Bordetella
Order Hydrogenophilales
Order Methylophilales
Order Neisseriales....................................Neisseria
Order Nitrosomonadales
Order Rhodocyclales
Order Procabacteriales
Class Gamma Proteobacteria
Order Acidithiobacillales
Order Aeromonadales...................................Aeromonas
Order Alteromonadales.........................Pseudoalteromonas
Order Cardiobacteriales
Order Chromatiales.......................purple sulfur bacteria
Order Enterobacteriales.............................Escherichia
Order Legionellales..................................Legionella
Order Methylococcales
Order Oceanospirillales
Order Pasteurellales................................Haemophilus
Order Pseudomonadales...............................Pseudomonas
Order Thiotrichales...............................Thiomargarita
Order Vibrionales........................................Vibrio
Order Xanthomonadales...............................Xanthomonas
Class Delta Proteobacteria
Order Bdellovibrionales............................Bdellovibrio
Order Desulfobacterales
Order Desulfovibrionales
Order Desulfurellales
Order Desulfarcales
Order Desulfuromonadales..............................Geobacter
Order Myxococcales.................................Myxobacteria
Order Syntrophobacterales
Class Epsilon Proteobacteria
Order Campylobacterales............................Helicobacter
Order Nautiliales
Phylum Thermodesulfobacteria
Phylum Thermomicrobia
Phylum Thermotogae
Phylum Verrucomicrobia
Superkingdom Urkaryotes*...................................prokaryotic cells that became eukaryotes
Superkingdom Eukaryotes............................................cells with nuclei and organelles
Kingdom Protista..................................................single celled stock eukaryotes
Subkingdom Protozoa
Phylum Caryoblastea
Phylum Ciliophora
Phylum Actinopoda
Phylum Dinoflagellata
Phylum Foraminifera
Phylum Cnidosporidia
Phylum Zoomastigina
Phylum Hyphochytridiomycota
Phylum Oomycota
Phylum Apicomplexa
Phylum Chytridiomycota
Subkingdom Thallophyta
Phylum Rhizopoda
Phylum Gamophyta
Phylum Cryptophyta
Phylum Euglenophyta
Phylum Prasinophyta
Phylum Chrysophyta
Phylum Haptophyta
Phylum Eustigmatophyta
Phylum Xanthopyta
Phylum Bacillariophyta
Kingdom Myxomycophyta.................................................................Slim Molds
Phylum Labyrinthulamycota.................................................slime nets
Genus Labyrinthula
Genus Labyrinthorhiza
Phylum Acrasiomycota............................................cellular slime molds
Class Acrasea
Class Dictyostelia
Phylum Myxomycota............................plasmodial slime molds, 400-500 species
Class Echinostelida
Family Echinosteliidae
Genus Echinostelium
Family Clastodermidae
Genus Clastroderma
Genus Barbeyella
Class Trichida
Class Liceida
Class Stemontida
Class Physarida
Phylum Plasmodiophoromycota
Kingdom Plantae
Subkingdom Algae
Phylum Rhodophyta...........................................red algae, deep seaweeds
Phylum Phaeophyta..............................................brown algae, seaweeds
Phylum Chlorophyta.......................................................green algae
?Phylum Charophyta
Subkingdom Embryophyta
Infrakingdom Bryophyta
Phylum Bryophyta
Class Hepaticae..................................................liverworts
Class Anthocerotae................................................hornworts
Class Musci..........................................................mosses
Infrakingdom Tracheohpyta..................................................vascular plants
Superphylum Prospermopsida
Phylum Psilopsida..................................psilophytes, dominant in Devonian
Phylum Lycopodophyta.......................................dominant in Carboniferous
Class Lycopodiae
Order Lycopodiales
Family Lycopoliaceae.................club mosses
Genus Lycopodium
Phylum Sphenophyta...........................dominant in Carboniferous (1 genus now)
Class Equisetae
Order Equisetales
Family Equisetaceae...................horsetails
Genus Equisetum
Phylum Filicinophyta (Pteropsida)
Class Filicae.........................................................ferns
Superphylum Spermopsida..............................spermatophyta, embryobearing seeds
Phylum Gymnospermae
Subphylum Pteridospermae...............................................seed ferns
Subphylum Ginkgophyta....................................................ginkgoes
Subphylum Gnetophyta
Subphylum Coniferophyta
Order Coniferales......................................conifers
Family Taxaceae
Genus Taxus
Family Pinaceae
Genus Pinus.......................pines
Genus Lari
Genus Picea
Genus Abies
Genus Tsuga
Genus Taxodium
Genus Chamaecyparis
Genus Thuja
Genus Juniperus
Subphylum Cycadophyta..................................................seed ferns
Phylum Angiospermophyta
Class Monocotyledoneae
Order Liliales
Family Liliaceae..........................lilies
Genus Smila
Class Dicotyledoneae
Subclass Archichlamydeae
Order Salicales
Family Salicaceae
Genus Sali
Genus Populus
Order Myricales
Family Myricaceae....................wax myrtles
Genus Myrica
Genus Comptonia
Order Leitneriales
Family Leitneriaceae
Genus Leitneria
Order Juglandales
Family Juglandaceae.......................walnut
Genus Juglans
Genus Carya
Order Fagales
Family Corylaceae
Genus Corylus
Genus Ostrya
Genus Carpinus
Genus Betula
Genus Alnu
Family Fagaceae
Genus Fagus
Genus Castanea
Genus Quercus
Order Urticales
Family Ulmaceae.............................elms
Genus Ulmus
Genus Planera
Genus Celtis..................hackberry
Family Moraceae.........................mulberry
Genus Morus
Genus Broussonetia
Genus Maclura
Order Santalales
Family Santalaceae....................sandalwood
Genus Pyrularia
Genus Nestronia
Genus Buckleya
Family Loranthaceae
Genus Phoradendron
Genus Arceuthobium
Order Aristolochiales
Family Aristolochiaceae................birthwort
Genus Aristolochia
Order Ranales
Family Ranunculaceae
Genus Clematis
Genus Xanthorhiza
Family Berberidaceae....................barberry
Genus Berberis
Family Menispermaceae
Genus Cocculus
Genus Menispermum
Genus Calycocarpum
Family Mangoliaceae.....................magnolia
Genus Mangolia
Genus Liriodendron
Family Calycanthaceae
Genus Calycanthus
Family Annonaceae
Genus Asimina
Family Lauraceae..........................laurel
Genus Persea
Genus Sassafras
Genus Litsea
Genus Lindera
Order Rosales
Family Saxifrangaceae.................saxifrange
Genus Philadelphus
Genus Decumaria
Genus Hydrangea
Genus Itea
Genus Ribes
Family Hamamelidaceae................witch hazel
Genus Hamamelis
Genus Fothergilla
Genus Liquidambar
Family Platanaceae....................plane tree
Genus Platanus.................sycamore
Family Rosaceae............................roses
Genus Physocarpus
Genus Spiraea
Genus Pyrus
Genus Amelanchier
Genus Crataegus
Genus Cotoneaster
Genus Potentilla
Genus Dryas
Genus Rubus
Genus Rosa
Genus Runus
Family Leguminosae.........................beans
Genus Acacia
Genus Albizzia
Genus Gymnocladus
Genus Gleditsia
Genus Cercis
Genus Cladrastis
Genus Genista
Genus Cytisus
Genus Ule
Genus Amorpha
Genus Robinia
Genus Wisteria
Genus Colutea
Genus Lespedeza
Order Geraniales
Family Rutaceae...........................orange
Genus Xanthoxylum
Genus Phellodendron
Genus Ptelea
Genus Poncirus
Family Simaroubaceae
Genus Ailanthus
Family Meliaceae........................mahogany
Genus Melia
Family Euphorbiaceae
Genus Andrachne
Order Sapindales
Family Empetraceae
Genus Empetrum
Genus Corema
Family Anacardiaceae
Genus Cotinus
Genus Rhus
Family Cyrillaceae
Genus Cyrilla
Family Aquifoliaceae.......................holly
Genus Ile
Genus Nemopanthus
Family Celastraceae
Genus Euonymus
Genus Pachistima
Genus Celastrus
Family Staphylaceae
Genus Staphylea
Family Aceraceae
Genus Acer........................maple
Family Hippocastanaceae
Genus Aesculus
Family Sapindaceae
Genus Sapindus................soapberry
Order Rhamnales
Family Rhamnaceae
Genus Berchemia
Genus Rhamnus
Genus Ceanothus
Family Vitaceae............................vines
Genus Ampelopsis
Genus Cissus
Genus Parthenocissus
Genus Vitis
Order Mavales...........................................mallows
Family Tiliaceae
Genus Tilia
Family Malvaceae..........................mallow
Genus Hibiscus.................hibiscus
Order Parietales
Family Theaceae
Genus Stewartia
Family Guttiferae
Genus Ascyrum
Genus Hypericum
Family Tamaricaceae
Genus Tamari
Family Cistaceae
Genus Hudsonia
Order Myrtales
Family Thymelaeaceae
Genus Dirca
Genus Daphne
Family Elaeagnaceae
Genus Eleagnus
Genus Shepherdia
Family Lythraceae....................loosestrife
Genus Decodon
Family Nyssaceae........................sour gum
Genus Nyssa
Order Umbellales
Family Araliaceae
Genus Aralia
Genus Oplophana
Genus Hedera
Family Cornaceae.........................dogwood
Genus Cornus
Subclass Metachlamydeae
Order Ericales
Family Clethraceae
Genus Clethra
Family Pyrolaceae....................wintergreen
Genus Chimaphla
Family Ericaceae...........................heath
Genus Ledum
Genus Rhododendron
Genus Menziesia
Genus Leiophyllum
Genus Loiseleuria
Genus Kalmia
Genus Phyllodoce
Genus Andromeda
Genus Zenobia
Genus Pieris
Genus Lyonia
Genus Leucothoÿeu
Genus Oxydendrum
Genus Chamaedaphne
Genus Cassiope
Genus Epigaea
Genus Gaultheria
Genus Arctostaphylos
Genus Calluna
Genus Erica
Genus Gaylussacia
Genus Vaccinium
Order Ebenales
Family Sapotaaceae.....................sapodilla
Genus Bumelia
Family Ebenaceae...........................ebony
Genus Diospyros
Family Symplocaceae
Genus Symplocos
Family Styracaceae
Genus Halesia................silverbell
Genus Styrax...................snowbell
Order Oleales
Family Oleaceae............................olive
Genus Fraxinus
Genus Syringa
Genus Forestiera
Genus Chionanthus
Genus Osmanthus
Genus Ligustrum
Order Gentianales
Family Loganiaceae.......................logania
Genus Gelsemium
Family Asclepiadaceae...................milkweed
Genus Periploca
Order Solanales (Polemoniales)
Family Verbenaceae.......................verbena
Genus Callicarpa
Family Solanaceae.....................nightshade
Subfamily Solanaceae
Genus Solanum
species lycopersicon..........tomato
species tuberosum.............potato
species melongena...........eggplant
species dulcamara.........nightshade
Genus Capsicum............chile peppers
species annuum...bell, cayenne, etc.
species baccatum.................aji
species frutescens...........tabasco
species pubescens.............rocoto
species chinense............habanero
Genus Mandragora...............mandrake
Genus Datura................Jimson Weed
Genus Lycium..................wolfberry
Subfamily Nicotianoideae..............tobacco
Family Scrophulariaceae..................figwort
Genus Paulownia
Family Bignoniaceae......................begonia
Genus Campsis
Genus Bignonia
Genus Catalpa
Order Rubiales
Family Rubiaceae..........................madder
Genus Mitchella
Genus Caphalanthus
Family Caprifolliaceae...............honeysuckle
Genus Diervilla
Genus Lonicera
Genus Symphoricarpos
Genus Linnaea
Genus Vibirnum
Genus Sambucus
Order Campanulales
Family Compositae
Genus Baccharis
Genus Iva
Genus Borrichia
Genus Calendula................marigold
Genus Tagetes..................marigold
Order Cyperales....grasses, 8,000 to 10,000 species
Family Poaceae/Gramineae
Subfamily Pooideae
Subfamily Panicoideae
Subfamily Bambusoideae
Subfamily Chloridoideae
Subfamily Arundinoideae
Subfamily Oryzoideae
Kingdom Fungi
Phylum Zygomycota
Class Mucorales
Class Entomophthorales
Class Zoopagales
Phylum Ascomycota
Class Hemiascomycetae
Class Euascomycetae
Class Loculoascomycetae
Class Laboulbeniomyceatae
Phylum Basidiomycota
Class Heterobasidiomycetae
Class Homobasidiomycetae
Phylum Deuteromycota
Class Sphaeropsida
Class Melanconia
Class Monilia
Class Mycelia Sterilia
Phylum Mycophycophyta........................................................Lichens
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Parazoa
Phylum Placozoa..........................................................one species
Genus Trichopla
Phylum Porifera..............................................................sponges
Class Calcarea...............................................chalky sponges
Class Hexactinellida..........................................glass sponges
Class Desmospongiae
Class Sclerospongiae
Subkingdom Mesozoa...........................................like Porifera but have one organ
Phylum Mesozoa
Class Dicyemida
Class Orthonectida
Subkingdom Metazoa..............................tissues organized into organs & organ systems
Infrakingdom Radiata..................................................two layers of tissue
Phylum Coelenterata
Class Hydrozoa
Class Scyphozoa...................................................jellyfish
Class Anthozoa........................................sea anemones & corals
Phylum Ctenophora.......................................................comb jellies
Class Tentaculata
Class Nuda
Infrakingdom Acoelomata.............................three tissue layers but no body cavity
Phylum Acoelomata
Subphylum Platyhelminthes...............................................flatworms
Class Turbellaria......................................freeliving flatworms
Class Trematoda......................................................flukes
Class Cestoda.....................................................tapeworms
Subphylum Nemertina...............................................proboscis worms
Infrakingdom Pseudocoelomata....................body cavity but not surrounded by mesoderm
Phylum Pseudocoelomata
Subphylum Acanthocephala.......................................spiny-headed worms
Subphylum Aschelminthes
Class Rotifera.....................................................rotifers
Class Gastrotricha
Class Kinorhyncha
Class Priapulida
Class Nematoda..................................................round worms
Class Nematomorpha..........................................horsehair worms
Subphylum Entoprocta
Infrakingdom Coelomata........................body cavity surrounded by mesoderm, a coelom
Superphylum Protostomia........................................blastopore becomes mouth
Phylum Lophophorata
Subphylum Ectoprocta......................................bryozoans, moss animals
Class Gymnolaemata
Class Phylactolaemata
Subphylum Phoronida
Subphylum Brachiopoda.................................................lamp shells
Class Inarticulata
Class Articulata
Phylum Mollusca.............................................................molluscs
Class Amphineura
Class Monoplacophora
Class Gastropoda.....................................................snails
Class Scaphopoda
Class Pelecypoda...................................................bivalves
Class Cephalopoda......................................squids, octopi, etc.
Subclass Nautiloidea..........................two genera, external shell
Order Nautilida
Family Nautilidae
Genus Nautilus.......chambered nautilus
Genus Allonautilus......Crusty nautilus
Order Bacritina*..............ancestors of Ammonites & Coleoids
Subclass Ammonoidea*......................Ammonites, exinct Celphalopods
Order Clymeniina*
Order Anarcestina*
Order Prolecantina*
Order Goniatitina*
Order Ceratitina*
Order Lytoceratina*
Order Ancyloceratina*
Order Ammonitina*................................true Ammonites
Order Phylloceratina*
Subclass Coleoidea........................internal, reduced, or no shell
Superorder Octopodiformes...............................eight legs
Order Belemnitina*...................................belemnites
Order Octopoda...........................octopuses, 150 species
Suborder Cirrina...................finned deep-sea octopuses
Family Cirroteuthidae
Family Opisthoteuthidae
Suborder Incirrina
Family Bolitaenidae.........gelatinous octopuses
Family Amphitretidae...........telescope octopus
Family Vitreledonellidae...........glass octopus
Superfamily Argonautoidea
Family Argonautidae....................Argonauts
Family Ocythoidae...............football octopus
Family Tremoctopodidae.........blanket octopuses
Family Alloposidae.............seven-arm octopus
Family Octopodidae.............benthic octopuses
Order Vampyromorpha
Family Vampyroteuthidae............vampire squid
Superorder Decapodiformes...............eight legs & two tentacles
Order Spirulida
Family Spirulidae...............Ram's Horn Squid
Order Sepiida
Family Sepiidae.....................cuttlefishes
Order Sepiolida
Family Sepiolidae.................bobtail squids
Family Sepiariidae.............bottletail squids
Order Idiosepiida
Family Idiosepiidae.................pygmy squids
Order Teuthida...........................................squids
Suborder Myopsina
Family Loliginidae.....inshore & calamari squids
Genus Loligo...............market squid
Genus Sepioteuthis.............Calamari
Family Pickfordiateuthidae..........grass squids
Suborder Oegopsina
Family Architeuthidae
Genus Architeuthis..........giant squid
Family Bathyteuthidae
Family Chtenopterygidae.......comb-finned squids
Family Cranchiidae..................glass squids
Family Enoploteuthidae
Family Gonatidae..................armhook squids
Family Histioteuthidae..............jewel squids
Family Joubiniteuthidae..........Joubin's squids
Family Magnapinnidae...............bigfin squids
Family Octopoteuthidae..........eight-arm squids
Family Mastigoteuthidae.........whip-lash squids
Family Chiroteuthidae
Family Ommastrephidae..............flying squids
Family Onychoteuthidae.............hooked squids
Family Pyroteuthidae.................fire squids
Family Thysanoteuthidae..........rhomboid squids
Phylum Sipunculida
Phylum Echiurida
Phylum Annelida......................................................segmented worms
Class Polychaeta......................................sand worms, tubeworms
Class Oligochaeta................................................earthworms
Class Hirudinea.....................................................leeches
Phylum Onychophora
Phylum Tardigrada.........................................................water bear
Phylum Pentastomida
Phylum Arthropoda
Subphylum Trilobita*.........................trilobites, extinct end of Paleozoic
Subphylum Chelicerata
Class Eurypterida*
Class Xiphosura.............................................horseshoe crabs
Order Xiphosura....................................four species
Genus Limulus.....Delaware horshoe crab
Class Arachnida.............................spiders, scorpions, ticks, etc.
Class Pycnogonida...............................................sea spiders
Subphylum Mandibulata
Class Crustacea
Subclass Malacostraca
Superorder Eucarida
Order Decapoda
Infraorder Stenopodidea
Infraorder Caridea................................shrimps
Infraorder Penaeidea...............................prawns
Infraorder Astacidea.............................lobsters
Infraorder Palinuridea...........................lobsters
Infraorder Anomura..................................crabs
Infraorder Brachyura...........................true crabs
Superfamily Ocypodoidea
Family Dotillidae
Genus Scopimera......Sand Bubbler Crabs
species inflata...........Australian
Genus Dotilla........Sand Bubbler Crabs
species myctiroides....Bay of Bengal
Infraorder Thalassinidea
Order Euphausiacea
Family Thysanopodidae......................Krill
Superorder Hoplocarida
Order Stomatopoda................................mantis shrimps
Superorder Peracarida
Order Amphipoda.......................................amphipods
Order Isopoda
Subclass Maxillipoda
Infraclass Cirripedia
Infraclass Copepoda
Class Chilopoda...................................................centipeds
Class Diplopoda....................................................millpeds
Class Pauropoda
Class Symphyla
Class Insecta
Order Colembola.....................................springtails
Order Protura
Order Deplura
Order Thysanura....................................bristletails
Order Embiaria
Order Plecoptera.....................................stoneflies
Order Zoraptera
Order Hemiptera..............cicadas, aphids, leafhoppers, etc.
Order Neuroptera................................lacewings, etc.
Subclass Pterygota
Order Odonata.......................................dragonflies
Order Orthoptera............grasshopers, crickets, cockcroaches
Order Dermaptera........................................earwigs
Order Corrodentia.....................................book lice
Order Mallophaga...................................chewing lice
Order Anoplura.....................................sucking lice
Order Thysanoptera.......................................thrips
Order Coleoptera.........................bettles, weevils, etc.
Order Hymenoptera.......................wasps, bees, ants, etc.
Order Mecoptera...................................scorpionflies
Order Siphonaptera........................................fleas
Order Diptera............................true flies, mosquitoes
Order Trichoptera...................................caddisflies
Order Lepidoptera............................moths, butterflies
"Division" Palaeoptera
Superorder Ephemeropterioidea
Order Ephemerida/Ephermeroptera........................mayflies
Suborder Pannota
Superfamily Caenoidea
Family Baetiscidae
Family Caenidae
Family Neoephemeridae
Family Prosopistomatidae
Superfamily Ephemerelloidea
Family Ephemerellidae
Family Leptohyphidae
Family Tricorythidae
Suborder Schistonota
Superfamily Ephemeroida
Family Ephemeridae
Genus Ephemera...........Linnean Mayfly
Suborder Furcatergalia
Superphylum Deuterostomia.......................................blastopore becomes anus
Phylum Pogonophora........................................................bear worms
Phylum Echinodermata........................................................starfish
Class Crinoidea..................................................sea lilies
Class Asteroidea...................................................starfish
Class Ophiuroidea.......................................brittle stars, etc.
Class Echinoidea............................sea urchins, sand dollars, etc.
Class Holothuroidea...........................................sea cucumbers
Phylum Chaetognatha
Phylum Chordata
Subphylum Hemichordata
Class Enteropneusta.............................................arrow worms
Class Pterobranchia
Subphylum Cephalochordata......................................lancets, amphiocus
Subphylum Urochordata...................................................tunicates
Class Ascidiacea................................................sea squirts
Class Thaliacea
Class Larvacea
Subphylum Vertebrata
Superclass Pisces
Class Agnatha
Subclass Monorhina...........................dorsal nostril between eyes
Order Cephalaspida*
Order Anaspida*
Subclass Diplorhina....................................no dorsal nostril
Order Pteraspida*
Order Coelolepida*
Subclass Cyclostomata..............................modern jawless fishes
Order Myxiniformes....................................hagfishes
Order Petromyzontiformes..............................hagfishes
Class Placodermi.........................................first jawed fishes
Order Arthrodira*
Order Pyctodontida*
Order Petalichthyida*
Order Antiarchi*
Order Rhenanida*
Order Phyllolopida*
Order Palaeospondyloidea*
Class Acanthodii...............................................spiny fishes
Order Climatiformes*
Order Ischnacanthiformes*
Order Acanthodiformes*
Class Chondrichthyes....................................cartilainous fishes
Subclass Elasmobranchii...........................................sharks
Order Clasdoselachiformes*
Order Pleuracanthiformes*
Order Heterodontiformes
Order Hexanchiformes
Order Lamniformes
Suborder Galeoidei........................most living sharks
Suborder Squaloidei..........................dogfishes, etc.
Suborder Batoidei..............................skates & rays
Subclass Holocephali...........................................sharklike
Order Chimaeriformes.....................chimaeras or ratfishes
Class Osteichthyes..............................................bony fishes
Subclass Actinopterygii.................................rayfinned fishes
Infraclass Chondrostei............................primitive rayfinned
Order Palaeonisciformes*
Order Polypteriformes
Order Acipenseriformes
Infraclass Holostei............................intermediate rayfinned
Order Semionotiformes*
Order Pycnodontiformes*
Order Amiiformes
Order Aspidorhynchiformes*
Infraclass Teleostei.................................advanced rayfins
Superorder Pholidophoromorpha*
Order Pholidophoriformes*
Superorder Leptolepidomorpha*
Order Leptolepiformes*
Superorder Elopomorpha
Order Elopiformes
Order Anguilliformes.......................................eels
Order Notocanthiformes
Superorder Clupeomorpha
Order Clupeiformes.....................................herrings
Superorder Osteoglossomorpha
Order Osteoglossiformes
Order Mormyriformes
Superorder Protacanthopterygii
Order Salmoniformes..............................salmon & trout
Order Ctenothrissiformes*
Order Gonorhynchiformes
Superorder Ostariophysi
Order Cypriniformes.........................minnows, carp, etc.
Order Siluriformes......................................catfish
Superorder Paracanthopterygii
Order Polymi iiformes
Order Percopsiformes
Order Gadiformes...................................cod, haddock
Order Batrachoidiformes
Order Lophiiformes......................................anglers
Order Gobiesociformes
Superorder Atherinomorpha
Order Atheriniformes................................flying fish
Superorder Acanthopterygii
Order Beryciformes
Order Zeiformes
Order Lampridiformes
Order Gasterosteiformes..............................sea horses
Order Channiformes
Order Synbranchiformes
Order Scorpaeniformes
Order Dactylopteriformes
Order Pegasiformes
Order Perciformes
Family Pomacentridae
Subfamily Amphiprioninae...........clown fish
Genus Amphiprion
Genus Premnas
Order Pleuronectiformes
Order Tetraodontiformes
Subclass Sarcopterygii................................lobe-finned fishes
Order Crossopterygii
Suborder Rhipidistia*
Superfamily Osteolepiformes*
Superfamily Porolepiformes*
Suborder Coelacanthini
Genus Latimeria..............Coelacanth
Order Dipnoi.........................................lungfishes
Superclass Tetrapoda
Class Amphibia
Subclass Labyrinthodontia*
Order Ichthyostegalia*
Order Temnospondyli*
Suborder Rhachitomi*
Suborder Stereospondyli*
Suborder Plagiosauria*
Order Anthracosauria*
Suborder Schizomeri*
Suborder Diplomeri*
Suborder Embolomeri*
Suborder Seymouriamorpha*
Subclass Lepospondyli*
Order Nectridia*
Order Aistopoda*
Order Mecrosauria*
Sublcass Lissamphibia..................................modern amphibians
Superorder Salientia.................................frogs & toads
Order Proanura*
Order Anura................................modern frogs & toads
Superorder Caudata
Order Urodela...............................salamanders & newts
Order Apoda
Class Reptilia
Subclass Anapsida............................................solid skull
Order Cotylosauria*
Suborder Gephyrostegomorpha*
Suborder Captorhinomorpha*
Suborder Procolophonia*
Suborder Diadectomorpha*
Order Chelonia..........................................turtles
Suborder Proganochelydia*
Suborder Amphichelydia*
Suborder Pleurodira
Suborder Cryptodira
Suborder Eunotosuria*
Order Mesosauria*
Subclass Synapsida..................................mammal-like reptiles
Order Pelycosauria*
Suborder Ophiacodontia*
Suborder Sphenacodontia...........................carnivores
Suborder Edaphosauria.............................herbivores
Order Therapsida*
Suborder Anomodontia*
Infraorder Dromasauria*
Infraorder Dinocephalia*
Infraorder Venyukoviamorpha*
Infraorder Dicynodontia*
Suborder Phthinosuchia*
Suborder Theriodontia*
Infraorder Gorgonopsia*
Infraorder Therocephalia*
Infraorder Bauriamorpha*
Infraorder Cynodontia*
Infraorder Tritylodontia*
Infraorder Ictidosauria*
Subclass Euryapsida.............................may be modified Diapsids
Order Protorosuria*
Order Sauropterygia*
Suborder Nothosauria*
Superfamily Pistosauroidea*
Superfamily Pliosauroidea*
Superfamily Plesiosauroidea*
Order Placodontia*
Family Placodontidae*
Family Cyamodontidae*
Family Henodontidae*
Order Ichthysosauria*
Family Utatsusauridae*
Family Omphalosauridae*
Family Mixosauridae*
Family Shastasauridae*
Family Ichthyosauridae*
Genus Ichthyosaurus........dolphin-like
Family Stenopterygiidae*
Family Protoichtyosauridae*
Family Leptopterygiidae*
Subclass Diapsida
Infraclass Lepidosauria
Order Eosuchia*
Order Rhynchocephalia
Order Squamata.................................lizards & snakes
Suborder Lacertilia, Sauria..........................lizards
Family Bavarisauridae*
Family Eichstaettisauridae*
Infraorder Iguania
Family Arretosauridae*
Family Euposauridae*
Family Corytophanidae.........casquehead lizards
Family Iguanidae...iguanas and spinytail iguanas
Family Phrynosomatidae......horned lizards, etc.
Family Polychrotidae......................anoles
Family Leiosauridae............see Polychrotinae
Family Tropiduridae...neotropical ground lizards
Family Liolaemidae..............see Tropidurinae
Family Leiocephalidae...........see Tropidurinae
Family Crotaphytidae..collared & leopard lizards
Family Opluridae.............Madagascar iguanids
Family Hoplocercidae.....wood lizards, clubtails
Family Priscagamidae*
Family Isodontosauridae*
Family Agamidae..........agamas, frilled lizards
Family Chamaeleonidae.................chameleons
Infraorder Gekkota
Family Gekkonidae.........................geckos
Family Pygopodidae................legless geckos
Family Dibamidae...................blind lizards
Infraorder Scincomorpha
Family Paramacellodidae*
Family Slavoiidae*
Family Scincidae..........................skinks
Family Cordylidae..............spinytail lizards
Family Gerrhosauridae.............plated lizards
Family Xantusiidae.................night lizards
Family Lacertidae...wall lizards or true lizards
Family Mongolochamopidae*
Family Adamisauridae*
Family Teiidae*..............tegus and whiptails
Family Gymnophthalmidae.......spectacled lizards
Infraorder Diploglossa
Family Anguidae.........slowworms, glass lizards
Family Anniellidae......American legless lizards
Family Xenosauridae..........knob-scaled lizards
Infraorder Platynota, Varanoidea
Family Varanidae.................monitor lizards
Family Lanthanotidae.....earless monitor lizards
Family Helodermatidae........Gila monsters, etc.
Family Mosasauridae*..............marine lizards
Tribe Mosasaurini*
Genus Mosasaurus*.............Mosasaurs
Suborder Ophidia, Serpentes...........................snakes
Infraorder Alethinophidia
Family Acrochordidae.................Wart snakes
Family Aniliidae...............False coral snake
Family Anomochilidae...........Dwarf pipe snakes
Family Boidae...............................Boas
Family Bolyeriidae...............Splitjaw snakes
Family Colubridae.................Typical snakes
Family Cylindrophiidae.........Asian pipe snakes
Family Elapidae..........................Elapids
Family Homalopsidae..................Homalopsids
Family Lamprophiidae................Lamprophiids
Family Loxocemidae.......Mexican burrowing snake
Family Pareidae..............Snail-eating snakes
Family Pythonidae........................Pythons
Family Tropidophiidae.................Dwarf boas
Family Uropeltidae..........Shield-tailed snakes
Family Viperidae..........................Vipers
Family Xenodermida....Dragon & odd-scaled snakes
Family Xenopeltidae...............Sunbeam snakes
Family Xenophidiidae..........Spine-jawed snakes
Infraorder Scolecophidia
Family Anomalepidae.......Primitive blind snakes
Family Gerrhopilidae....Indo-Malayan blindsnakes
Family Leptotyphlopidae.....Slender blind snakes
Family Typhlopidae..........Typical blind snakes
Family Xenotyphlopidae....Round-nosed blindsnake
Infraclass Archosauria
Order Thecodontia*.......................ancestors of dinosaurs
Suborder Proterosuchia*
Suborder Pseudosuchia*
Suborder Aetosauria*
Suborder Phytosauria*
Order Crocodilia
Suborder Protosuchia*
Suborder Mesosuchia*
Suborder Sebecosuchia*
Suborder Eusuchia
Class Endosauropsida....................................dinosaurs and birds
Subclass Dinosauria*
Order Ornithischia........................bird hipped dinosaurs
Suborder Ornithopoda*
Family Fabrosauirdae*
Family Heterodontosauridae*
Family Dryosauridae*
Family Hypsilophodontidae*
Family Iguanodontidae*
Genus Camptosaurus*
Genus Iguanodon*
Family Hadrosauridae*
Genus Hadrosaurus*
Suborder Pachycephalosauria*
Family Pachycephalosauridae*
Family Homalocephalidae*
Suborder Stegosauria*
Family Scelidosauridae*
Family Stegosauridae*
Genus Stegosaurus*
Suborder Ankylosauria*
Family Nodosauridae*
Family Ankylosauridae*
Genus Ankylosaurus*
Suborder Ceratopsia*
Family Psittacosauridae*
Family Protoceratopsidae*
Family Ceratopsidae*
Genus Monoclonius*
Genus Styracosaurus*
Genus Chasmosaurus*
Genus Triceratops*
Order Saurischia........................lizard hipped dinosaurs
unclassified
Infraorder Segnosauria*
Genus Segnosaurus*
Suborder Palaeopoda*
Infraorder Palaeosauriscia*
Infraorder Plateosauria*
Suborder Sauropodamorpha*
Infraorder Plateosauria*
Family Anchisauridae*
Family Melanorosauridae*
Family Blikanasauridae*
Infraorder Sauropoda*
Family Cetiosauridae
Family Diplodocidae*
Genus Amphicoelias*
Subfamily Apatosaurinae*
Genus Apatosaurus*
species ajax*
species louisae*
Genus Brontosaurus*
species excelsus*
species yahnahpin*
species parvus*
Subfamily Diplodocinae*
Genus Tornieria*
Genus Supersaurus*
Genus Leinkupal*
Genus Galeamopus*
Genus Diplodocus*
species carnegii*
species hallorum*
Genus Kaatedocus*
Genus Barosaurus*
species lentus*
Family Brachiosauridae*
Genus Brachiosaurus*
Genus Bothriospondylus*
Family Titanosauridae*
Genus Alamosaurus*
Family Camarasaurideae*
Genus Camarasaurus*
Family Euhelopodidae
Suborder Theropoda*
Family Podokesauridae*
Family Shanshanosauridae*
Family Elmisauridae*
Infraorder Coelurosauria*
Family Compsognathidae
Family Coeluridae*
Infraorder Ornithomimosauria*
Family Oviraptoridae*
Family Ornithomimidae*
Genus Ornithomimus*
Genus Struthiomimus*
Infraorder Deinonychosauria*
Family Deinocheiridae*
Family Dromaeosauridae*
Genus Deinonychus*
Family Saurornithoididae*
Family Therezinosauridae*
Infraorder Carnosauria*
Family Megalosauridae*
Genus Megasaurus*
Family Allosauridae*
Genus Allosaurus*
Family Dryptosauridae*
Family Ceratosauridae*
Family Spinosauridae*
Superfamily Tyrannosauroidea*
unclassified
Genus Alectrosaurus*
Genus Appalachiosaurus*
Genus Aviatryannis*
Genus Dilong*
Genus Drypotosaurus*
Genus Eotyrannus*
Genus Juratyrant*
Genus Santanaraptor*
Genus Xiongguanlong*
Genus Raptorex*
Genus Yutyrannus*
Family Protocertosaurids*
Genus Guanlong*
Genus Kileskus*
Genus Proceratosaurus*
Genus Sinotyrannus*
Family Tryannosauridae*
Subfamily Albertosaurines*
Genus Albertosaurus*
Genus Gorgosaurus*
Subfamily Tyrannosaurines*
Genus Alioramus*
species altai*
species remotus*
Genus Daspletosaurus*
Genus Lythronax*
Genus Nanuqsaurus*
Genus Qianzhousaurus*
Genus Tarbosaurus*
Genus Teratophoneus*
Genus Tyrannosaurus*
species rex*
Genus Zhuchengtyrannus*
Order Pterosauria*
Suborder Rhamphorhynchoidea*
Suborder Pterodactyloidea*
Subclass Aves........................................birds, 9000 species
Infraclass Archaeornithes*
Order Archaeopterygiformes*
Infraclass Neornithes
Superorder Odontognathae*
Order Hesperornitheforms*
Order Ichthyornitheformes*
Superorder Palaeognathae, Ratites [note]
Order Struthioniformes
Family Struthionidae
Genus Struthio................Ostriches
species asiaticus*.....Asian Ostrich
species molybdonphanes........Somali
species camelus..............Ostrich
variety australis...South African
variety syriacus*.........Arabian
variety camelus.....North African
variety massaicus...Masai Ostrich
(Order)
Suborder Rheiformes
Family Opisthodactylidae*
Family Rheidae.............................rheas
(Suborder)
(Infraorder)
Parvorder Dinornithiformes/Tinamiformes
Family Dinornithidae*.......................moas
Family Tinamidae.........South American tinamous
(Infraorder)
Parvorder Casuariiformes
Family Casuariidae...................cassowaries
Family Dromaiidae...........................emus
Family Dromornithidae
Parvorder Aepyornithiformes/Apterygiformes
Family Aepyornithidae*............elephant birds
Family Apterygidae.........................kiwis
Superorder Neognathae
Order Gaviiformes
Family Gaviidae............................loons
Order Podicipediformes
Family Podicipedidae......................grebes
Order Procellariiformes...................albatrosses & petrels
Family Diomedeidae...................albatrosses
Family Procellariidae.......shearwaters, petrels
Family Hydrobatidae................storm-petrels
Order Sphenisciformes..................................penguins
Order Pelecaniformes...................................pelicans
Family Phaethontidae.................tropicbirds
Family Sulidae.................gannets & boobies
Family Pelecanidae......................pelicans
Family Phalacrocoracidae..............cormorants
Family Anhingidae.......................anhingas
Family Fregatidae...................frigatebirds
Order Ciconoiiformes............................herons & storks
Family Ardeidae.......herons, egrets, & bitterns
Family Threskiornithidae.....ibises & spoonbills
Family Ciconiiae................storks & jabirus
Family Cathartidae............new world vultures
Order Phoenicopteriformes
Family Phoenicopteridae.......greater flamingoes
Order Anseriformes........................ducks, geese, & swans
Family Anatidae
Subfamily Cygninae......................swans
Subfamily Anserinae.....................geese
Subfamily Dendrocygninae......whistling-ducks
Subfamily Anatinae......................ducks
Genus Mareca...................widgeons
Genus Spatula..................shoveler
Genus Aix.....................wood duck
Genus Anas........mallards, teals, etc.
species platyrhynchos........mallard
Subfamily Aythyinae..........bay/diving ducks
Subfamlily Merginae....sea ducks & mergansers
Subfamily Oxyurinae........stiff-tailed ducks
Order Falconiformes............vultures, hawks, falcons, eagles
Family Pandionidae.......................ospreys
Family Accipitriae
Subfamily Elaninae/Milvinae.............kites
Subfamily Circinae..........northern harriers
Subfamily Accipitrinae.......hawks & goshawks
Subfamily Buteoninae...eagles & buzzard hawks
Family Falconidae............caracaras & falcons
Order Galliformes.............grouse, quail, turkeys, pheasants
Family Cracidae................plain chachalacas
Family Phasianidae
Subfamily Phasianinae..............partridges
Subfamily Tetraoninae...........grouses, etc.
Subfamily Meleagrinae.................turkeys
Family Odontophoridae..........quail & bobwhites
Order Gruiformes...................................cranes, etc.
Family Rallidae.......rails, coots, & gallinules
Family Aramidae.........................limpkins
Family Gruidae............................cranes
Order Diatrymiformes*
Order Charadriiformes...............................gulls, etc.
Family Charadriidae.lapwings, plovers, killdeers
Family Haematopodidae.............oystercatchers
Family Recurvirostridae.........stilts & avocets
Family Jacanidae.........................jacanas
Family Scolopacidae.....sandpipers, snipes, etc.
Family Laridae
Subfamily Stercorariinae......skuas & jaegers
Subfamily Larinae.......................gulls
Subfamily Sterninae...........terns & noddies
Subfamily Rynchopinae................skimmers
Family Alcidae...........auks, murres, & puffins
Order Columbiformes.......................pigeons, dodos, doves
Family Columbidae................doves & pigeons
Order Psittaciformes....................lories, parrots, macaws
Family Psittacidae...........parrots & parakeets
Order Cuculiformes.........................cuckoos, roadrunners
Family Cuculidae....cuckoos, anis, & roadrunners
Order Strigiformes.........................................owls
Family Tydonidae.......................barn owls
Family Strigidae.screech-owls, horned owls, etc.
Order Caprimulgiformes...nighthawks, poorwills, pauraques, etc.
Family Caprimulgidae............nighthawks, etc.
Order Apodiformes..........................swifts, hummingbirds
Family Apodidae...........................swifts
Family Trochilidae..................hummingbirds
Order Coliiformes
Order Trogoniformes
Order Coraciiformes
Family Alcedinidae...................kingfishers
Order Piciformes.....................toucans, woodpeckers, etc.
Family Picidae.......woodpeckers, flickers, etc.
Order Passeriformes................perching birds, 5300 species
Suborder Oligomyodi...........suboscines; from South America
Infraorder Acanthisittides..............New Zealand wrens
Infraorder Pittides......................broadbills, etc.
Infraorder Tyrannides
Parvorder Thamnophilida...............typical antbirds
Parvorder Furnariida
Superfamily Formicarioidea.........ground antibirds
Superfamily Furnarioidea............ovenbirds, etc.
Suborder Passeres......................oscines; 4000 species
Parvorder Corvida.................evolved in Australia
Superfamily Menuroidea
Superfamily Meliphagoidea
Superfamily Corvoidea..........crows, jays, magpies
Family Corvidae
Genus Perisoreus..............gray jays
Genus Cyanocitta..............blue jays
Genus Aphelocoma.............scrub jays
species californica..........Western
species coerulescens.........Florida
Genus Cyanocorax.....brown & green jays
Genus Pica......................magpies
Genus Corvus.............crows & ravens
Genus Gymnorhinus.............piñon jay
Genus Nucifraga......Clark's nutcracker
Parvorder Passerida
Superfamily Passeroidea........larks, orioles, etc.
Family Alaudidae...........................larks
Family Icteridae.....orioles, grackles, cowbirds
Family Passeridae.............Old World sparrows
Genus Passer.............house sparrows
Family Emberizidae......New World sparrows, etc.
Family Fringillidae......finches, redpolls, etc.
Family Cardinalidae....cardinals, buntings, etc.
Superfamily Sylvioidea..............wrens, swallows
Family Hirundinidae...........swallows & martins
Family Paridae..............chickadees & titmice
Family Remizidae.........................verdins
Family Sittidae.......................nuthatches
Family Certhiidae.................brown creepers
Family Troglodytidae.......................wrens
Superfamily Muscicapoidea
Family Bombycillidae....................waxwings
Family Cincilidae........................dippers
Family Turdidae.........................thrushes
Family Sturnidae/Mimidae
Tribe Mimini..................mockingbirds
Tribe Sturnini.......................mynas
unclassified
Family Parulidae..............New World warblers
Family Thraupidae.......................tanagers
Class Mammalia
Sublcass Eotheria*
Order Docodonta*
Order Triconodonta*
Subclass Prototheria
Order Monotremata............................platypus & echidna
Subclass Allotheria*
Order Multituberculata*
Suborder Plagiaulacoidea*
Suborder Taeniolabidoidea*
Suborder Ptilodontoidea*
Subclass Theria
Infraclass Pantotheria*
Order Eupantotheria*
Order Symmetrodonta*
Infraclass Metatheria.........................................pouches
Superorder Marsupialia
Order Marsupicarnivora..................American opossums, etc.
Order Paucituberculata
Order Peramelina.....................................bandicoots
Order Diprotodonta.......................koala, kangaroos, etc.
Suborder Vombatiformes.....................wombats and koala
Suborder Phalangeriformes..Aussi possums, sugar glider, etc.
Suborder Macropodiformes
Family Balbaridae*...........ancestral kangaroos
Family Macropodidae...kangaroos, wallabies, etc.
Family Potoroidae.......bettongs, potaroos, etc.
Family Hypsiprymnodontidae....musky rat-kangaroo
Infraclass Eutheria........................................placentals
Superorder Afrotheria...........................African placentals
Order Tubulidentata...................................aardvarks
Order Proboscidea.....................................elephants
Suborder Moeritherioidea*
Suborder Dinotherioidea*
Suborder Barytherioidea*
Suborder Euelphantoidea
Superfamily Gomphotherioidea*
Superfamily Mastodontoidea................mastodons
Superfamily Elephantoidea......elephants & mammoths
Order Sirenia.................................sea cows/manatees
Order Hyracoidea..........................................Hyrax
Superorder Xenarthra.....................South American placentals
Order Edentata
Suborder Palaeanodonta*
Suborder Cingulata..................armadillos & glyptodonts
Suborder Pilosa............................sloths, anteaters
Order Xenungulata*.....................South American ungulates
Order Pyrotheria*......................South American ungulates
Order Notoungulata*....................South American ungulates
Suborder Notioprogonia*
Suborder Toxodontia*
Suborder Typotheria*
Suborder Hegetotheria*
Order Astrapotheria*...................South American ungulates
Order Litopterna*......................South American ungulates
Superorder Laurasiatheria.....Eurasian & North American placentals
Order Dermoptera
Order Taeniodonta*
Order Tillodontia*
Order Chrioptera...........................................bats
Suborder Microchiroptera
Suborder Megachiroptera
Order Insectivora
Suborder Proteutheria*
Suborder Macroscelidea
Suborder Dilambdodonta.............moles, hedgehogs, & shews
Suborder Zalambdodonta
Order Creodonta..............................ancient carnivores
Suborder Deltatheridia*
Family Deltatheriidae*
Family Didymoconidae*
Suborder Hyaenodontia*
Family Hyaenodontidae*
Order Hyaenodonta*
Family Hyaenodontidae*
Genus Hyaenodon*
Genus Boualitomus*
Genus Laekitherium*
Genus Metapterodon*
Genus Triacodon*
Genus Parvagula*
Order Oxyaenida*
Family Oxyaenidae*
Genus Machaeroides*
Family Oxyeanidae*
Order Carnivora
Family Nimravidae*.......from Feliforms 48-55 My
Subfamily Nimravinae*................Dinictis
Subfamily Hoplophoninae*
Suborder Feliformia (Fissipedia).........cat-like carnivores
Infraorder
Superfamily Stenoplesictoidea*
Family Stenoplesictidae*
Family Percrocutidae*
Superfamily*
Family Nimravidae*........false sabre-tooth cats
Superfamily
Family Nandiniidae............African palm civet
Superfamily Feloidea (Aeluroidea)
Family Prionodontidae...........Asiatic linsangs
Family Barbourofelidae*
Family Felidae..............................cats
Subfamily Machairodontinae*.....Saber-Toothed
Tribe Metailurini*
Genus Dinofelis*
Genus Metailurus*
Tribe Homotherini*
Genus Homotherium*
Genus Machairodus*
Genus Xenosmilus*
Tribe Smilodontini*
Genus Paramachairodus*
Genus Megantereon*
Genus Smilodon*
species gracilis*
species populator*
species fatalis*
Subfamily Pantherinae
Tribe Panthera Lineage
Genus Panthera
species tigris.................tiger
species leo.....................lion
species onca..................jaguar
species pardus...............leopard
species uncia...........snow leopard
Genus Neofilis
species nebulosa.....clouded leopard
species diardi.Sunda clouded leopard
Subfamily Felinae
Tribe Bay cat Lineage
Genus Pardofelis
Genus Catopuma
Tribe Caracal Lineage
Genus Leptailurus
Genus Caracal
species caracal..............caracal
species aurata....African golden cat
species serval................serval
Tribe Ocelot Lineage
Genus Leopardus
Tribe Lynx Lineage
Genus Lynx
Tribe Puma Lineage
Genus Puma
Genus Acinonyx
Tribe Leopard cat Lineage
Genus Prionailurus
Genus Otocolobus
Tribe Domestic cat Lineage
Genus Felis
species catus...........domestic cat
species chaus.............Jungle cat
species margarita...........Sand cat
species nigripes....Black-footed cat
species silvestris...........Wildcat
Infraorder Viverroidea
Superfamily
Family Viverridae................civets & allies
Superfamily Herpestoidea
Family Hyaenidae..............hyaenas & aardwolf
Family Eupleridae............Malagasy carnivores
Family Herpestidae............mongooses & allies
Suborder Caniformia......................dog-like carnivores
Infraorder
Superfamily*
Family Amphicyonidae*..................bear-dogs
Superfamily Canoidea
Family Canidae.....dogs, wolves, foxes, & allies
Subfamily Caninae
Tribe Canini.....................true dogs
Genus Canis
species adoxus*
species lupus..............Gray wolf
variety familiaris...domestic dog
variety dingo...............Dingo
Genus Cuon........Dhole, Asian wild dog
Genus Lycaon...........African wild dog
Genus Atelocynus........Short-eared dog
Genus Cerdocyon.........Crab-eating dog
Genus Dusicyon*..........Falklands wolf
Genus Lycalopex............pseudo-foxes
Genus Chrysocyon.............Maned wolf
Genus Speothos.................Bush dog
Tribe Vulpini...................true foxes
Genus Vulpes......................foxes
species lagopus...........Arctic fox
species vulpes...............Red fox
species velax..............Swift fox
species macrotis.............Kit fox
species corsac............Corsac fox
species chama...............Cape fox
species pallida.............Pale fox
species bengalensis.......Bengal fox
species ferrilaa....Tibetan sand fox
species cana..........Blanford's fox
species rueppelli......Rüppell's fox
species zerda.............Fennec fox
Genus Urocyon
species cinereoargentieus...Gray fox
species littoralis........Island fox
species..................Cozumel fox
Tribe Caninae
Genus Otocyon.............Bat-eared fox
Genus Nyctereutes...........Raccoon dog
Subfamily Borophaginae*
Tribe Phlaocyonini*
Tribe Borophagini*
Subfamily Hesperocyoninae*
Infraorder Arctoidea
Superfamily Ursoidea
Family Hemicyonidae*
Family Ursidae.............................bears
Subfamily Ailuropodinae
Genus Ailurarctos*
Genus Ailuropoda.................pandas
species melanoleuca......Giant panda
Subfamily Tremarctinae
Genus Tremarctos
species ornatus......Spectacled bear
Subfamily Ursinae
Genus Ursavus*
Genus Indarctos*
Genus Agriotherium*
Genus Melursus
species ursinus...........sloth bear
species malayanus...........Sun bear
Genus Ursus
species thibetanus..Asian black bear
species americanus........Black bear
species arctos............Brown bear
variety californicus*...CA Golden
variety horribilis........Grizzly
variety moddendorffi.......Kodiak
species maritimus.........Polar bear
Genus Kolponomus*
Superfamily Pinnipedia
Family Enaliarctidae*
Family Odobenidae..........................walrus
Family Otariidae......................eared seals
Family Phocidae........................true seals
Superfamily Musteloidea
Family Ailuridae.......................red panda
Family Mephitidae.........................skunks
Family Mustelidae...............weasels & allies
Family Procyonidae.............raccoons & allies
Order Condylarthra*
Order Amblypoda*
Suborder Pantodonta*
Suborder Dinocerata*
Order Pholidota.......................................pangolins
Order Perissodacyla..........................odd toed ungulates
Suborder Hippomorpha
Superfamily Equoidea
Family Equidae............................horses
Superfamily Brontotherioidea*
Suborder Ancylopoda*
Suborder Ceratomorpha
Superfamily Tapiroidea.......................tapirs
Superfamily Rhinocerotoidea..................rhinos
Order Artiodacyla...........................even toed ungulates
Suborder Paleodonta*
Superfamily Dichobunoidea*
Superfamily Entelodontoidea*
Suborder Suina
Superfamily Suoidea............................pigs
Superfamily Anthracotherioidea*
Superfamily Hippopotamoidea.................hippoes
Suborder Ancodonta*
Superfamily Cainotherioidea*
Superfamily Merycoidondontoidea*
Suborder Tylopoda............................camels & llamas
Suborder Ruminantia................................ruminants
Infraorder Tragulina
Superfamily Traguloidea
Family Tagulidae......................Mouse Deer
Infraorder Pecora........................higher ruminants
Superfamily Cervoidea
Family Cervidae.............................Deer
Subfamily Cervinae.............Old World Deer
Tribe Cervini....................True Deer
Genus Cervus........Red Deer, Elk, etc.
Genus Axis..................Chital Deer
Genus Dama..................Fallow Deer
Genus Rucervus...............Swamp Deer
Tribe Muntiacini..................Muntjacs
Genus Muntacus.................Muntjacs
Genus Elaphodus.............Tufted Deer
Subfamily Capreolinae..........New World Deer
Tribe Capreolini............New World Deer
Genus Capreolus................Roe Deer
Genus Hydropotes.............Water Deer
Tribe Alceini........................Moose
Genus Clces.......................Moose
Tribe Odocoileini................Mule Deer
Genus Rangifer.................Reindeer
Genus Odocoileus.....Black/White Tailed
Genus Blastocerus............Marsh Deer
Genus Pudu.........................Pudu
Genus Hippocamelus..........Andean Deer
Genus Mazama...............Brocket Deer
Genus Ozotoceros............Pampas Deer
Superfamily Giraffoidea.....................Giraffs
Family Antilocapridae
Genus Antilocapra............Pronghorns
Family Giraffidae........................Giraffs
Superfamily Bovoidea.........................Cattle
Family Moschidae
Genus Moschus.................Musk Deer
Family Bovidae
Subfamily Bovinae
Tribe Boselaphini
Tribe Bovini
Genus Bubalus.......water buffalo, etc.
species arnee.....Wild Water Buffalo
species bubalis........Water Buffalo
species depressicornis..Lowland Anoa
species mindorensis..........Tamaraw
species quarlesi.......Mountain Anoa
Genus Bos....................cows, etc.
species primigenius..........Aurochs
species javanicus............Banteng
species gaurus..................Gaur
species frontalis..............Gayal
species grunniens................Yak
species mutus...............Wild Yak
species sauveli..............Kouprey
species taurus.......domestic cattle
variety taurus.....Taurine cattle
variety indicus..Zebu, Indian cow
Genus Pseudoryx...................Saola
Genus Syncerus..........African Buffalo
Genus Bison
species bison.......American Buffalo
species bonasus.......European Bison
Genus Pelorivis*..........Giant Buffalo
Genus Tragelaphus.........antelope-like
Genus Taurotragus................Elands
Clade Artiodacyla.............................even toed ungulates
Order Cetartiodactyla....................................whales
Clade Cetancodontamorpha
Suborder Whippomorpha
Infraorder Cetacia.................................whales
Parvorder Archaeoceti*
Parvorder Odontoceti..........dolphins, toothed whales
Parvorder Mysticeti...................whalebone whales
Order Desmostylia
Order Embrithopoda*
Superorder Euarchontoglires...............rhodents, primates, etc.
Order Rodentia
Suborder Protorogomorpha*
Suborder Sciuromorpha..............................squirrels
Suborder Caviomorpha
Suborder Myomorpha...............................mice & rats
Suborder Castorimorpha...............................beavers
Suborder Theridomyomorpha*
Suborder Hystricomorpha...........................procupines
Suborder Thryonomyomorpha
Suborder Ctenodactylomorpha
Order Lagomorpha........................................rabbits
Order Scandentia
Superfamily Tupaeoidea.............or with Primates
Family Tupaiidae.....................tree shrews
Subfamily Tupaiinae
Genus Tupaia
Genus Dendrogale
Genus Urogale
Subfamily Ptilocercinae
Genus Ptilocerus
Order Primates..............prosimians, monkeys, apes, & humans
Suborder Plesiadapiformes*
Superfamily Paramomyoidea*
Family Paromomyidae*
Family Picrodontidae*
Family Microsyopidae*
Superfamily Plesiadapoidea
Family Plesiadapidae*
Family Saxonellidae*
Family Carpolestidae*
Suborder Strepsirrhines
Infraorder Prosimii
Parvorder Adapiformes*
Family Adapidae*
Parvorder Lemuriformes
Superfamily Lemuroidea
Family Lemuridae..........................lemurs
Subfamily Lemurinae
Genus Lemur
Genus Hapalemur
Genus Lepilemur
Family Megalapidae*
Genus Megalapis*
Superfamily Indrioidea
Family Indriidae
Genus Mesopropithecus*
Genus Indri
Genus Lichanotus
Genus Propithecus
Family Daubentoniidae
Genus Daubentonia
Family Archaeolemuridae*
Genus Archaeolemur*
Genus Hadropithecus*
Family Palaeopropithecidae*
Genus Palaeopropithecus*
Genus Archaeoindris*
Superfamily Lorisoidea
Family Lorisidae.........................lorises
Genus Loris
Genus Nycticebus
Genus Arctocebus
Genus Perodicticus
Family Cheirogaleinae
Genus Cheirogaleus
Genus Microcebus
Genus Phaner
Family Galagidae
Subfamily Galaginae
Genus Galago
Genus Euoticus
Suborder Haplorhines
Infraorder Tarsiiformes
Superfamily Tarsioidea
Family Omomyidae*
Genus Absarokius*
Genus Altanius*
Genus Anaptomorphus*
Genus Anemorphysis*
Genus Chlororhysis*
Genus Chumashius*
Genus Donrussellia*
Genus Dyseolemur*
Genus Ekgmowechashala*
Genus Hemiacodon*
Genus Hoanghonius*
Genus Kohatius*
Genus Loveina*
Genus Macrotarsius*
Genus Mckennamorphus*
Genus Microchoerus*
Genus Nannopithe *
Genus Necrolemur*
Genus Omomys*
Genus Ourayia*
Genus Pseudoloris*
Genus Rooneyia*
Genus Shoshonius*
Genus Stockia*
Genus Teilhardina*
Genus Tetonius*
Genus Trogolemus*
Genus Uintanius*
Genus Utahia*
Genus Washakus*
Family Tarsiidae........................tarsiers
Genus Tarsius
Infraorder Anthropoidea...........monkeys, apes, & humans
Parvorder Platyrrhini................new world monkeys
Superfamily Ceboidea
Family Atelidae*
Genus Cebupitheciae*
Genus Homunculus*
Genus Stirtonia*
Genus Tremacebus*
Genus Xenothrix*
Family Callithriciae...................marmosets
Subfamily Callithricinae
Genus Callithri
Genus Leontocebus...............tamarin
Genus Cebulella
Genus Mico
Genus Marikina
Genus Tamarin
Genus Oedipomidas
Family Cebidae
unclassified
Genus Branisella*
Genus Dolichocebus*
Genus Neosaimiri*
Subfamily Callimiconinae
Genus Callimico
Subfamily Aotinae
Genus Aotes
Genus Callicebus
Subfamily Pthecinae
Genus Pithecia
Genus Chriopotes
Genus Cacajao
Subfamily Alouattinae
Genus Alouatta...................howler
Subfamily Cebinae
Genus Cebus....................capuchin
Genus Saimiri
Subfamily Atelinae
Genus Ateles..............spider monkey
Genus Brachyteles
Genus Lagothri
Parvorder Catarrhini................old world primates
Superfamily Parapithecoidea*
Family Parapithecidae*
Genus Apidium*
Genus Parapithecus*
Superfamily Cercopithecoidea......old world monkeys
Family Oreopithecidae*
Genus Oreopithecus*
Family Cercopithecidae
unclassified
Genus Dinopithecus*
Genus Dolichopithecus*
Genus Gorgopithecus*
Genus Libypithecus*
Genus Mesopithecus*
Genus Paradolichopithecus*
Genus Procynocephalus*
Genus Prohylobates*
Genus Victoriapithecus*
Subfamily Cercopithecinae
Genus Cercopithecoides*
Genus Macaca....................macaque
Genus Cynopithecus
Genus Cercocebus
Genus Papio......................baboon
Genus Theropithecus
Genus Cercopithecus
Genus Erythrocebus
Genus Mandrillus...............mandrill
Subfamily Colobinae
Genus Parcolobus*
Genus Presbytis..................langur
Genus Pygathri
Genus Rhinopithcus
Genus Simias
Genus Nasalis
Genus Colobus
Superfamily Hominoidea................apes & humans
Family Pliopithecidae*
Genus Dendropithecus*
Genus Limnopithecus*
Genus Pliopithecus*
Genus Propliopithecus*
Family Hylobatidae
Subfamily Hyobatinae
Genus Hylobates..................gibbon
Genus Symphlangus...............siamang
Family Pongidae
unclassified
Genus Dryopithecus*
Genus Gigantopithecus*
Genus Proconsul*
Genus Sivapithecus*
Subfamily Ponginae
Genus Pongo...................orangutan
Genus Pan....................chimpanzee
Genus Gorilla
Family Hominidae..........................humans
Subfamily Australopithecinae
Genus Australopithecus
species anamensis.......4.5-3 My ago
species afarensis...........4-2.5 My
species africanus...........2.5-2 My
species garhi...............2.5-2 My
species boisei............2.5-1.5 My
species robustus............1.5-1 My
Subfamily Anthropinae
Tribe Hominini
Genus Homo
species habilis.............2 My ago
species rudolfensis...........1.2 My
species erectus.........1,500-250 ky
species ergaster........1,000-800 ky
species antecessor.........500,000 y
species sapiens............300,000 y
variety neanderthalensis...150 ky
variety archaic.........300-30 ky
variety sapiens..........32,000 y
Let me remind the reader that I cannot say that any of this page is the result of an extensive search of the literature, let alone the most recent literature. I notice what comes my way. The purpose here is to give an impression of the variety of life, in line with the philosophical purpose of The Proceedings of the Friesian School, with some issues that are of interest to me. Suggestions are welcome.
The Maastricht and Onion Creek Mosasaurs
Genus Architeuthis, the Giant Squid
The Living Coelecanth, Latimeria
Unfortunately, Friend is a politically correct jounalist who insists on marring his book with nasty environmentalist remarks, like the need to "save the human race from its recklessness and horribly inefficient ways of using energy" [p.28], as though our determination to live our lives with available technology, however inefficient this will appear in the future, is "recklessness" just because we are doing it. Friend, of course, is free to offer his own technology, which hopefully will not be less efficient, as "alternative fuels" currently are. Friend's moral indignation over other people, or reality, not measuring up to his expectations is characteristic of the political left and much of the environmental movement. On the other hand, Friend seems to be daring and politically incorrect in his appreciation of genetic engineering and biotechnology -- he deserves some credit for this.
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Architeuthis, the Giant Squid, was until recently ranked as the largest invertebrate. It has been one of the greatest mysteries in nature, since for decades no mature animal had ever been filmed or photographed alive. It was sometimes said that one had never been seen alive, but there were several reports of sightings. Whether they were to be believed was the question, though there is no particular reason why such a report, in general, should not have been believed. Most of the reports were of sightings at night, and it now well known that many deep sea creatures come up from the depths in the dark.
Architeuthis was not like Big Foot. Remains of adult animals were found washed ashore from Britain to New Zealand, and other individuals were found in the stomachs of Sperm Whales. Intact adults have been found up to 60 feet long -- although now this is said to be an exaggeration (tentacles have been unnaturally stretched before measurement). The actual bodies (the "mantle") are less than third of that: It is the arms and tentacles that account for the rest of the length. The two tentacles are the longest organs, used for actually snaching prey and carrying it to the mouth. Architeuthis has the largest eyes of any animal. This is consistent with its deep water habits. The squids may frequent depths of 2000 feet or more, where light from above no longer exists, but many animals generate their own light, for various reasons. Sightings of live Architeuthis at the surface have only been at night. The large eyes may also be why living individuals were not been seen at depth. Human deep sea vehicles are usually lit up like Christmas trees, with searchlights and television cameras scanning the area. This is going to be conspicuous, if not positively painful, to Architeuthis, which, if healthy, will be able to avoid being anywhere near would-be observers. Indeed, a large portion of the known species of any kind of squid have not been observed alive. They live in all oceans from top to bottom. Squids are basically pelagic, i.e. live in open water, unlike octopuses, which are benthic, i.e. tend to live on the ocean bottom -- although there are some pelagic octopi and benthic squid. Neither kind of animal has air sacs or voids in its body (although the closely related cuttlefish do). This enables them to easily adapt to any depth or pressure in the ocean. Sperm Whales can dive to great depths to eat Giant Squids, but as their lungs collapse, there are limits. 
The squids do fight back, since such whales often have scars that look like the work of Architeuthis. There are naturalists who have been specifically looking for Giant Squids, and hopefully they will continue to think of strategies or camouflage to overcome how or why it is that the animals tend to avoid observation.
In September 2005, news broke that Japanese scientists had finally observed a live Giant Squid at depth. They had done this back in September 2004, and I still have not seen the reason why the the news was so delayed. They took more than 500 pictures of one 25 foot long individual they found at 2,950 feet (900 meters) beneath the North Pacific Ocean. Unfortunately, they were able to do this by hooking the animal, and in its struggle to get away, it lost one of its tentacles, which was recovered by the Japanese. This sighting still doesn't seem to involve movies of direct observation from submersibles.
I have been waiting for the shows on the Discovery, National Geographic, or the (Discovery) Science Channels about all this, and now I have seen a good hour long show on the Science Channel about the achievement, called "Giant Squid: Caught on Camera." The Japanese scientists found the squid by following the sperm whales who hunt them off Japan. The whales are certainly as impressive as the Giant Squid, diving down more than a mile and staying down for a couple of hours. The undigested beaks of multiple squid are often found in the stomachs of the whales, and their hide is scarred from squid suckers. Tracking devices were placed on the whales to see how deep they were diving to hunt the squid, and that is where the pictures were caught.
There is now another issue involved here. Since 2003, complete specimens have been described of the Colossal Squid (Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni, 1925). The Colossal Squid is shorter but heavier than Architeuthis and has been receiving considerable, if not the lion's share, of media attention the last few years, since this now counts as the largest invertebrate. The largest Colossal Squid, caught in 2007, weighed in at 1091 lbs. and was 33 ft. long. While the range of the Giant Squid is through all the worlds oceans, the Colossal Squid appears to be confined to the circumantarctic Southern Ocean. How recent is the recognition of the Colossal Squid, which was originally described (in 1925) only from fragments, I can tell from my previous sourcebook on Celphalopods: Cephalopods, A World Guide, by Mark Norman [ConchBooks, Hackenheim, Germany, 2000]. This handsome volume, which I bought in 2002, contains no mention whatsoever of the Colossal Squid or Mesonychoteuthis. The introduction to the Architeuthidae simply says, "Giant Squids are the largest of all the cephalopods and the largest individual intervertebrate in the world" [p.150]. This now needs to be rewritten.
Until 1938, specimens of lobe-finned fishes of the Order Crossopterygii, the ancestors of amphibians, were only known from fossils. They appeared to have died out in the Cretaceous.
Then a fisherman from East London, South Africa, brought in a fish he did not recognize. He called Marjorie Courtenay-Latimer, curator of the museum in East London, to have a look at it. She could not identify the fish and called her friend, ichthyologist James Leonard Brierley Smith. After some delay, in which the fish needed to be sent to a taxidermist, Smith examined the specimen and recognized that it was a Coelacanth. The genus was named Latimeria after Marjorie. Since the fish had been damaged by the taxidermy, some questions remained until more examples were caught in 1952. Living fish were filmed under water only in 1988.
Up to six feet long and bright blue in life, but evidently not good eating (they had long been known to the locals), these dramatic fish, with their dramatic identification, gave a whole new meaning to the term "living fossil." Smith said that he could not have been more surprised if he had seen a dinosaur walking down the street.
The Ratites are a group of birds that include the largest birds. Ostriches can stand nine feet tall, but Moas and Elephant Birds were taller. The Ratites are now all flightness, except for the Tinamous. Ideas about the Ratites have recently been badly shaken by DNA studies. We also have some uncertainty about the generality of the group, with classifications grouping them as either a Superorder or an Infraclass.
The diagram at right reflects the list given above. This has been altered from the classication previously on this page, where the Superorder Palaeognathae simply contained seven Orders of birds, the Struthioniformes (Ostriches), Rheiformes (Rheas), Dinornithiformes (Moas), Tinamiformes (Tinamous), Casuariiformes (Cassowaries and Emus), Aepyrornithiformes (Elephant Birds), and Apterygiformes (Kiwis). The equality of the Orders embodied uncertainty about the genetic relations of the groups, something not unusual with birds, whose fossils have been rare.
Previously, since all Ratites are confinded to the Southern Hemisphere, it was concluded that they originated on the great southern continent of Gondwanaland, during the Creataceous. Gondwanaland then broke up, isolating populations in South America, Africa, and Australia, and on islands like New Zeland and Madagascar.
Since the South American Timanou can fly, and all of the other birds cannot, with the same reduction of the breast bone, which no longer anchors flight muscles, the inference was that a common ancestor lost flight, with the Tinamou preserving the ancestral power. So the Tinamou wasn't even a true Ratite.
The diagram at left displays the judgment about all this as of 1974. The birds are grouped by location, with the exception of the Tinamous, which share South America with Rheas. Thus, the flying branch of ancestry was only preserved in South America, while the Rheas are the South American branch of the lineage in Gondwanaland that lost flight, and is otherwise found on all the daughter continents. The Elephant Birds of Madagascar are not shown here, but we are free to infer a close relationship with Ostriches, which have been found both in Africa and, with fossils, in India, either of which could have shared species with Madagascar.
This logical and almost self-evident arrangement was completely scrambled when DNA studies were done on the living species and on the available DNA of the fossils of extinct ones. The lineage that certainly had to be distinct from all the others, of the flying Tinamous, is now buried deep in the phylogeny, 
closely related to the Moas in New Zealand, which is almost literally a world away from South America. Just as bad, or worse, is that the extinct Elephant Birds of Madagascar are the most closely related to the tiny and peculiar Kiwis of New Zealand, a full ocean, and more, if not exectly a world, away from each other.
These results are challenging in several ways. How would a common ancestor have descendants in just New Zealand and South America, and another have descendants in just New Zealand and Madagascar? This adds to the strangeness of Madagascar, which is the home of all surviving Prosimians, and whose human languages are related to the Polynesian Mâori language of New Zealand. The timeline seems to prevent these sharings from dating to when the land masses were adjacent in the Cretaceous. We end up with the picture of Kiwis somehow flying to New Zealand from Madagascar. And it would be a very long way for Tinamous to fly from New Zealand to South America, without leaving descendants behind. Or anywhere else along the way.
Even worse, if it is considered impossible that Tinamous could have returned to flight from a flightless ancestor, this means that the ancestor of nearly every lineage of Ratites could fly and that each lineage thus independently became flightless. This is very hard to credit, especially if the reduction in the breast bone is apparently identical in all of them. Evolution doesn't work that way.
So we have multiple mysteries with the Ratites -- problems that until recently didn't even exist. But it means great fun to figure this out. Genuine scientists love it when conventional wisdom is suddenly overthrown, with no obvious path forward. If only there were more scientists like that in climatology.