This page contains an image that some may regard as offensive or inappropriate. It is included because it is (1) funny, (2) apt, and (3) addresses a feature of the human condition, namely that we belong to the natural system of the animals, and of the mammals in particular. People who find this objectionable may wish to read about decadence instead. Otherwise, see the note for Mammalia in the example classification for Homo sapiens below.
The following list covers, as far as I can determine, every living thing, not always down to much detail, of course. This is an idiosyncratic and likely a dated treatment. Idiosyncratic mainly because of the system of Superkingdoms and Kingdoms, which are novel. Dated because my sources are getting a little old. My first exposure to the big picture of life was in The Wellsprings of Life by the late and beloved Isaac Asimov [Signet Science Library, 1960].
Superkingdom Progenotes*.....first cells Superkingdom Archaebacteriae Kingdom Protomonera.......archaic bacteria Superkingdom Eubacteria Kingdom Monera............bacteria Superkingdom Urkaryotes* Superkingdom Eukaryotes......cells with nuclei Kingdom Protista..........protozoans Kingdom Myxomycophyta.....slime molds Kingdom Plantae............plants Kingdom Fungi..............fungi Kingdom Animalia...........animals |
The five Kingdoms of Margulis and Schwartz are Monera, Protoctista (instead of Protista), Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia. The source of the "seven Kingdoms" idea was a Scientific American article on the "archaebacteria," anaerobic and other peculiar bacteria that are like those that preexisted the oxygenation of the Earth's atmosphere [C. R. Woese, "Archaebacteria," Scientific American, June 1981, pp.98-122]. In a genealogy of life, these are importantly different from later bacteria. They include the very unique chemosynthesizing bacteria that make an abundance of life possible at volcanic vents, "smokers," on mid-ocean ridges. These sites and their fauna were entirely unknown until the late 1970's and open the prospect that life may have begun in the high temperatures and chemical rich environments of such places. I have just seen mention (late 2002, on one of these science shows on the Discovery Channel or Science Channel) that a fundamental division of life into the archaic bacteria, regular bacteria, and everything else is now widely accepted.
I now have a new book on all this, The Third Domain, the Untold Story of Archaea and the Future of Biotechnology, by Tim Friend [Joseph Henry Press, Washington, 2007]. The chart at left is featured in Friend's book [p.11] with a division based on DNA studies. I have added color to highlight the differences, with the assumption that it is Archaebacteria at the "Origin," since they were necessarily anaerobic in an early atmosphere of little oxygen. [note]
The idea of the three living Superkingdoms that I have used here is intended to represent the new understanding of the three large divisions of life, with two extinct Superkingdoms for transitional forms that now no longer exist. The Superkingdoms are thus based on the stages in the evolution of structure of the cell. Eukaryotic cells not only contain distinct nuclei but have organelles, small bodies like mitochondria and chloroplasts. Since such organelles can contain their own genetic material, they may well have originated as separate organisms that came to live as symbiotes in host cells.
It also occurred in the Scientific American article that slime molds were rather different from what might have been associated with them earlier, the fungi or protista -- Margulis and Schwartz note that such separate classification can occur but don't themselves give slime molds a separate Kingdom. With the new genetic studies, as displayed in Friend's book, a number of branches of life appear to be on about equal footing with slime molds, plants, animals, and fungi. This could result in a great multiplication of Kingdoms, with six divisions instead of one for the Protista just within the Eukaryotes. The following diagram from Friend's book [p.63] is more clearly labelled and does not leave unidentified branches as in the first diagram. For the moment, I will resist the tempation to multiply the Kingdoms further -- holding at seven with only two added to Margulis and Schwartz for the Archaebacteria (preferentially "Archaea" in recent usage) and slime molds. If organelles originate as symbiotes within the Eukaryotes, it is always possible that some of them were from the Eubacteria, which complicates a simple branching tree of life. I have not yet attempted to adjust the main table below in light of the new information. It still reflects what I gathered from the earlier sources.
The basic elements of the system of classification are in bold text below: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and species. The elaboration of this into so many intermediate categories now has progressed very far. The following table illustrates the levels of classification for human beings (Homo sapiens). I have modified this table in light of a recent article in Science News [March 29, 2003] that there has been a division introduced for the Primates since the work in other sources. Tarsiers have now been removed from the Prosimians and grouped with monkeys and apes. The division between this group (the Haplorhines) and the rest of the Primates (the Strepsirrhines) has even been dated, with DNA techniques, to between 80 and 90 million years ago. This puts the groups in the range of Suborders. So I have introduced them at that level, bumping the previous Suborders and Infraorders down one step. This could be conveniently done, since the Parvorder level not had previously been used. I have also seen in a National Geographic Magazine article on the mammals [April 2003] that recent DNA studies have radically regrouped the divisions of placential mammals [pp.14-15]. The levels of "parvorder" and "tribe" originally only occurred in one place in the following table, under the Order Passeriformes, perching birds -- though the parvorder is now also used here, as just explained, for the Primates. The classification for these birds is based on another article in Scientific American, which distinguished between the Corvida and the Passerida. The most interesting feature was that the Corvida, ultimately including crows (Genus Corvus), evolved in Australia and, unlike other native Australian Speaking of the birds, Aves is given here as a subclass rather than a class, as usual, based on the idea that birds are dinosaurs, and that dinosaurs should no longer be classified as reptiles. The classification here thus uses Class Endosauropsida for both dinosaurs and birds, borrowing the term from The Hot-Blooded Dinosaurs, by Adrian J. Desmond [Warner Books, 1975, 1977], one of the first books I saw with extensive discussion and argument for the warm blooded nature of dinosaurs (and Thecondonts, which here are still left with the reptiles). (Any category followed by an asterisk, "*," by the way, is extinct.) Later, I would say that the best book that turned up was The Dinosaur Heresies by practicing paleontologist Robert T. Bakker [William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1986] -- a bit of a Wild Child in paleontology, always sporting a bushy beard and battered cowboy hat.
One of the great features of Bakker's book is his explanation of the evidence for the large sauropod dinosaurs being able to raise up on their hind legs. As with Brontosaurus at right (which Bakker, like Stephen J. Gould, continues to call "Brontosaurus," despite the perplexing obscurantist rage for renaming it), it is easy to see the long processes out of the top of the vertebrae [pp.191-192]. The only purpose for such things is muscle attachments. Their length indicates the leverage that the muscles need to function, and the only reasonable function is to raise up the body. While the The idea that evolution represents progress is criticized by some scientists, like Stephen J. Gould himself. Gould thinks that "natural selection" contains so many accidental features that we can rarely say that its products are "better" than they might have been with some different outcome. There is no telling what kind of intelligent dinosaurs we might have now if they had not been knocked out by an asteroid 65 million years ago. Who are we to think that we are "better" than they might have been? Or, who are we to think that we are better than squids, trilobites, or horseshoe crabs?
The problem with Gould's point of view is that it rejects any possibility that some things are more organized than others. Yet life itself is more organized than inorganic nature. Life can occur because the situation of the Earth allows entropy to decrease rather than increase, increasing order rather than disorder, an unusual situation in the universe (and used by Creationists to deny that evolution is possible). But if the Earth allows order to increase over time, then it is reasonable to say that, barring accidents like the asteroid impacts, life will get more and more organized over time. If dinosaurs had lived, maybe there would be intelligent dinosaurs by now. But squids and horseshoe crabs have lived, quite content and unchanged in their own ancient ecological niches. Other forms of life, however, caught by ecological changes or radiating into new niches, have changed dramatically. With humans, lower entropy not only has occurred with human evolution, but humans now extensively organize Nature around them. We intentionally lower entropy through vast artificial constructions, in comparison to which the earlier artifacts of living things, like beaver dams, look like, well, mole hills. The variety of life here is one of the basic pieces of evidence for Evolution, since the development of one form of life out of another is a simpler explanation (observing "Ockham's Razor") than having the Creator engage in constant supernatural intervention in order to start off each species at its ordained time and place. Such a piecemeal job of Creation would have offended the sense of earlier theologians that God would act with simplicity, economy, and elegance -- which we still find Einstein expecting of the laws of nature as conceived by God. Advocates of Creationism and Intelligent Design expend far less criticism on their own theology than they do on Darwinism. The idea that God would not have anticipated and created all of history, coiled like a spring, right from the very beginning would have offended philosophers like both Spinoza and Leibniz, who otherwise would not have agreed on much.
The following table is preformatted for a fixed, non-proportional type font (like Courier). This preserves the pattern of the classification and its correspondence to the levels of classification given in the window at the top of the webpage. If desired, that window can be eliminated by moving the boundary line. If the font for the tables that appears on your page is not fixed width (non-proportional), the font should be changed by using the "preferences" menu on your browser. On a computer screen more than 640 pixels wide, the width of the windows can be optimized to include the whole width of the table.
The classification of Bacteria in Mr. Friend's book didn't match up very well with that in my older sources, like Margulis and Schwartz. A correspondent pointed out that the Phylum Proteobacteria did not even occur in the table. Thus, I have now included the Phyla for all Bacteria and subdivisions of the Proteobacteria as they are listed at Wikipedia. I have made some effort to match these up with the higher levels of classification already shown, but I don't know enough details to do this very effectively. I've also added the Wikipedia list of Phyla of Archaea (Archaebacteria), which do not correspond to the older names I had. So I end up with a bit of a hash of older and newer nomenclature. The future of classification is certainly to use mathematical formulae for differences in genetic content. There are genes for basic chemical activities in the cell that are basically shared by all living things. Beyond that we get degrees of difference. Genus Architeuthis, the Giant Squid
The Living Coelecanth, Latimeria
Unfortunately, Friend is a politically correct jounalist who insists on marring his book with nasty environmentalist remarks, like the need to "save the human race from its recklessness and horribly inefficient ways of using energy" [p.28], as though our determination to live our lives with available technology, however inefficient this will appear in the future, is "recklessness" just because we are doing it. Friend, of course, is free to offer his own technology, which hopefully will not be less efficient, as "alternative fuels" currently are. Friend's moral indignation over other people, or reality, not measuring up to his expectations is characteristic of the political left and much of the environmental movement. On the other hand, Friend seems to be daring and politically incorrect in his appreciation of genetic engineering and biotechnology -- he deserves some credit for this.
It is diagnostic of the Class Mammalia that the young are nursed with milk, produced from dedicated and specialized glands, the mammary glands. Typically, only females develop this ability; and in most species the mammary glands are, apart from periods of lactation following gestation, undeveloped and out of sight, except for what may be a relatively inconspicuous nipple. Humans are unusual in this respect. At maturity, human females develop permanent large swollen glands which are especially prominent because that are carried high on the chest in an upright posture. We might as well say: you can't miss them. This circumstance betrays their function as sexual organs and signals and not just sources of milk. The constancy of the signal goes along with the sexual availability of the females apart from ovulation -- while most female mammals are only sexually responsive during estrus.
The Greeks and Romans in general favored modesty, but sexual exposure of the body seems to have been more a matter of humor or humiliation than of anything more serious. The nudity of male Greek athletes, although a source of Hellenic pride, was not approved of by the Romans, nor did it extend to female Greek athletes. Female dress seems to conceal the breasts as much as the genitals, unlike India, where the breasts are typically exposed in Classical costume. Then, later, especially during the Hellenistic Age, there was also a growing sense that the naked body, beginning with males and then extending to females, was a thing of beauty, and its portrayal was taken up at a most serious level in art. It is consequently a little hard to imagine Greek or Roman "indecent exposure" laws, also because, although the gods themselves might have some modesty, there was a religious dimension to sexuality that rendered sexual organs sacred and numinous. Thus, when the courtesan Prýnê exposed her breasts (at least) to the Athenian jury, this resulted in a law prohibiting such conduct, but she was nevertheless acquitted, in part out of fear, we are told, of her divine patroness, the goddness Aphroditê. The Athenians would be reminded of the danger of crossing the goddess from sources like the Hippolytus of Euripides.
The monotheistic religions introduced a nudity taboo, which historically might be enforced with violence or legal sanctions. This originated in the cultural milieu of Judaism, and was not unique to it, but it then was especially propagated through the daughter religions of Judaism, namely Christianity and Islam. It makes the most sense in Christianity, which was far more world-denying than the other two and involved practices (more characteristic of Hinduism or Jainism) of asceticism, austerities, and mortifications of the flesh. Sexual organs and sexual arousal could then be regarded as dangerous sources of temptation away from the requirements of piety. This could be regarded as a matter of positive evil. All three religions, however, contain some element of religious anaesthesia.
Meanwhile, these organs are not just visual signals in the sexual context; they are sensitive and active in the human sexual response. For women, there seems to be a wild range in the kind and extent of the sensitivity. Some women may find their breasts merely ticklish, while others can even achieve orgasm from their stimulation. Maxim magazine helpfully reports the results of a survey that 8.8% of women answer that what is "most likely to bring [them] to orgasm" is "nipple sucking and fondling" [April, 2011, p.76, boldface added]. This strikes me as a surprisingly large segment of the population. Otherwise, most women may find the stimulation of nipples or breasts arousing but then prefer to move the locus of attention. Men may also find that stimulation of their own nipples can effect arousal, but such attention may also be judged unmanly. How this all works seems to draw less scientific attention than the sexual responses of the genitals proper.
The Egyptian word for "breast," A nice personal, cultural, historical, and artistic examination on the breast is The Breast Book -- An Intimate and Curious History -- Attitude, Perception, Envy & Etiquette, by Maura Spiegel & Lithe Sebesta [Workman Publishing, New York, 2002].
Shame, Beauty, and the Ambivalence of the Flesh
The Erotic as an Aesthetic Category
The New Friesian Theory of Religious Value
Architeuthis, the Giant Squid, was until recently ranked as the largest invertebrate. It has been one of the greatest mysteries in nature, since for decades no mature animal had ever been filmed or photographed alive. It was sometimes said that one had never been seen alive, but there were several reports of sightings. Whether they were to be believed was the question, though there is no particular reason why such a report, in general, should not have been believed. Most of the reports were of sightings at night, and it now well known that many deep sea creatures come up from the depths in the dark.
In September 2005, news broke that Japanese scientists had finally observed a live Giant Squid at depth. They had done this back in September 2004, and I still have not seen the reason why the the news was so delayed. They took more than 500 pictures of one 25 foot long individual they found at 2,950 feet (900 meters) beneath the North Pacific Ocean. Unfortunately, they were able to do this by hooking the animal, and in its struggle to get away, it lost one of its tentacles, which was recovered by the Japanese. This sighting still doesn't seem to involve movies of direct observation from submersibles.
I have been waiting for the shows on the Discovery, National Geographic, or the (Discovery) Science Channels about all this, and now I have seen a good hour long show on the Science Channel about the achievement, called "Giant Squid: Caught on Camera." The Japanese scientists found the squid by following the sperm whales who hunt them off Japan. The whales are certainly as impressive as the Giant Squid, diving down more than a mile and staying down for a couple of hours. The undigested beaks of multiple squid are often found in the stomachs of the whales, and their hide is scarred from squid suckers. Tracking devices were placed on the whales to see how deep they were diving to hunt the squid, and that is where the pictures were caught.
There is now another issue involved here. Since 2003, complete specimens have been described of the Colossal Squid (Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni, 1925). The Colossal Squid is shorter but heavier than Architeuthis and has been receiving considerable, if not the lion's share, of media attention the last few years, since this now counts as the largest invertebrate. The largest Colossal Squid, caught in 2007, weighed in at 1091 lbs. and was 33 ft. long. While the range of the Giant Squid is through all the worlds oceans, the Colossal Squid appears to be confined to the circumantarctic Southern Ocean. How recent is the recognition of the Colossal Squid, which was originally described (in 1925) only from fragments, I can tell from my previous sourcebook on Celphalopods: Cephalopods, A World Guide, by Mark Norman [ConchBooks, Hackenheim, Germany, 2000]. This handsome volume, which I bought in 2002, contains no mention whatsoever of the Colossal Squid or Mesonychoteuthis. The introduction to the Architeuthidae simply says, "Giant Squids are the largest of all the cephalopods and the largest individual intervertebrate in the world" [p.150]. This now needs to be rewritten.
We get four broad groups, Afrotheria, Xenarthra, Laurasiatheria, and Euarchontoglires. These groups match up with the way in which the Jurassic supercontinent, Pangaea, broke up (or reconnected, between Eurasia and Africa) over millions of years, with the groups corresponding, respectively, to Africa, South America, Eurasia and North American (i.e. Laurasia), and Eurasia and Africa. As it happens these divisions can easily be incorporated as Superorders. Previously, I had only used one Superorder (Placentalia) under the Infraclass Eutheria, but this was not logically meaningful, since it was coextensive. The Eutheria were already the placentials. Now this gives us more interesting distinctions. I cannot know from the National Geographic information where some Orders, especially extinct ones, would belong, so I have simply left them under Laurasiatheria, which is the largest group.
Superkingdom Eukaryotes
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Infrakingdom Coelomata
Superphylum Deuterostomia, 750-1250 My
Phylum Chordata
Subphylum Vertebrata
Superclass Tetrapoda
Class Mammalia [note]
Subclass Theria
Infraclass Eutheria
Superorder Euarchontoglires
Order Primates, 90-100 My
Suborder Haplorhines, 80-90 My
Infraorder Anthropoidea, 70-80 My
Parvorder Catarrhini, 60-70 My
Superfamily Hominoidea, 50-60 My
Family Hominidae, 40-50 My
Subfamily Anthropinae, 30-40 My
Tribe (none), 20-30 My
Genus Homo
species sapiens
variety sapiens
life forms, was able to then spread around the world. The use of the "parvorder" and "tribe" levels also went along with an estimation, which is given in the table above, of the time elapsed since separation of the genealogy at that level. With genetic analysis of DNA, this is now a promising means of determining relationships between all life forms and the age of various divisions. If the purpose of the introduction of parvorder and tribe was to allow a steady gradient in time among the level of classification, then perhaps living genera separate at 10-20 million years ago, and species at up to 10 million years ago. It is independently estimated that a species lasts about 5 million years, so that is in the right order of magnitude.
idea of these dinosaurs rearing up has become general knowledge, the evidence for it has not. This is clear in the movie Jurassic Park, where a Brachiosaurus is shown rearing up. However, Bakker shows the skeleton of Brachiosaurus also (at right), and its vertebrae do not have the same long processes as Brontosaurus. Brachiosaurus has longer front legs and a relatively longer neck. It is thus adapted to high feeding without rearing up. The makers of Jurassic Park missed this, or ignored it. Meanwhile, other paleontologists simply don't believe that sauropods like this could even raise their heads, much less raise their whole bodies. One argument seems to be simple disbelief that the circulatory system could handle the low blood pressure that would result from the raised head. That there isn't a shred of evidence about what such circulatory systems were, and that giraffes have no trouble raising their heads for what are probably similar purposes of feeding (with physiological adaptations for the changes in blood pressure as the head is raised and lowered), doesn't seem to matter. I have not noticed any suggestions about what the long sauropod neck would have been for, if it was not for high level feeding. Bakker links the predominance of sauropods in the Jurassic with the absence of low level vegetation, while in the Cretaceous, the rise of flowering plants, with their low level leaves, resulted in the decline of sauropods and the predominance of other herbivores.
The system of life thus does represent, perhaps to the horror of someone like Stephen J. Gould, a hierarchy. Human beings indeed look like, as Pericles said, the "paragon of animals."
Superkingdom Progenotes*.............................................................earliest cells
Superkingdom Archaebacteriae.............surviving archaic & anaerobic prokaryotic single cell life
Kingdom Protomonera
Superphylum Methanogenes
Phylum Methaneocreatrices............................................methane forming
Genus Methanosarcina
Genus Methanobacterium
Genus Methanococcus
Superphylum Thermoacidophiles.................................chemoautotrophic bacteria
unclassified
Phylum Aphragmabacteria?...................................without normal cell walls
Phylum Thiopneutes?.................................................sulfate reducers
Phylum Crenarchaeota
Phylum Euryarchaeota
Phylum Korarchaeota
Phylum Nanoarchaeota
Superkingdom Eubacteria.......................................advanced prokaryotic single cell life
Kingdom Monera
Superphylum Spirochaetae....................................................spirochetes
Phylum Spirochaetes
Superphylum Purple Photosynthetic Bacteria............anaerobic photosynthetic bacteria
Superphylum Cyanobacteria
Phlyum Cyanobacteria
Superphylum Chloroxybacteria..............................green photosynthetic bacteria
Phlyum Chlorobi
Phlyum Chloroflexi
Superphylum Radiation Resistant Bacteria
Superphylum Micrococci...........................................gram-positive bacteria
unclassified
Phylum Fermenting Bacteria?
Phylum Nitrogen-Fixing Aerobic Bacteria?
Phylum Pseudomonads?
Phylum Aeroendospora?
Phylum Myxobacteria?
Phylum Omnibacteria?
Phylum Acidobacteria
Phlyum Actinobacteria
Phlyum Aquificae
Phlyum Bacteroidetes
Phlyum Chlamydiae
Phlyum Chrysiogenetes
Phlyum Deferribacteres
Phlyum Deinococcus-Thermus
Phlyum Dictyoglomi
Phlyum Fibrobacteres
Phlyum Firmicutes
Phlyum Fusobacteria
Phlyum Gemmatimonadetes
Phlyum Nitrospirae
Phlyum Planctomycetes
Phlyum Proteobacteria
Class Alpha Proteobacteria
Order Caulobacterales...............................Caulobacter
Order Kordiimonadales
Order Parvularculales
Order Rhizobiales......................................Rhizobia
Order Rhodobacterales
Order Rhodospirillales..............................Acetobacter
Order Rickettsiales..................................Rickettsia
Order Sphingomonadales.............................Sphingomonas
Class Beta Proteobacteria
Order Burkholderiales................................Bordetella
Order Hydrogenophilales
Order Methylophilales
Order Neisseriales....................................Neisseria
Order Nitrosomonadales
Order Rhodocyclales
Order Procabacteriales
Class Gamma Proteobacteria
Order Acidithiobacillales
Order Aeromonadales...................................Aeromonas
Order Alteromonadales.........................Pseudoalteromonas
Order Cardiobacteriales
Order Chromatiales.......................purple sulfur bacteria
Order Enterobacteriales.............................Escherichia
Order Legionellales..................................Legionella
Order Methylococcales
Order Oceanospirillales
Order Pasteurellales................................Haemophilus
Order Pseudomonadales...............................Pseudomonas
Order Thiotrichales...............................Thiomargarita
Order Vibrionales........................................Vibrio
Order Xanthomonadales...............................Xanthomonas
Class Delta Proteobacteria
Order Bdellovibrionales............................Bdellovibrio
Order Desulfobacterales
Order Desulfovibrionales
Order Desulfurellales
Order Desulfarcales
Order Desulfuromonadales..............................Geobacter
Order Myxococcales.................................Myxobacteria
Order Syntrophobacterales
Class Epsilon Proteobacteria
Order Campylobacterales............................Helicobacter
Order Nautiliales
Phylum Thermodesulfobacteria
Phylum Thermomicrobia
Phylum Thermotogae
Phylum Verrucomicrobia
Superkingdom Urkaryotes*...................................prokaryotic cells that became eukaryotes
Superkingdom Eukaryotes............................................cells with nuclei and organelles
Kingdom Protista..................................................single celled stock eukaryotes
Subkingdom Protozoa
Phylum Caryoblastea
Phylum Ciliophora
Phylum Actinopoda
Phylum Dinoflagellata
Phylum Foraminifera
Phylum Cnidosporidia
Phylum Zoomastigina
Phylum Hyphochytridiomycota
Phylum Oomycota
Phylum Apicomplexa
Phylum Chytridiomycota
Subkingdom Thallophyta
Phylum Rhizopoda
Phylum Gamophyta
Phylum Cryptophyta
Phylum Euglenophyta
Phylum Prasinophyta
Phylum Chrysophyta
Phylum Haptophyta
Phylum Eustigmatophyta
Phylum Xanthopyta
Phylum Bacillariophyta
Kingdom Myxomycophyta.................................................................Slim Molds
Phylum Labyrinthulamycota.................................................slime nets
Genus Labyrinthula
Genus Labyrinthorhiza
Phylum Acrasiomycota............................................cellular slime molds
Class Acrasea
Class Dictyostelia
Phylum Myxomycota............................plasmodial slime molds, 400-500 species
Class Echinostelida
Family Echinosteliidae
Genus Echinostelium
Family Clastodermidae
Genus Clastroderma
Genus Barbeyella
Class Trichida
Class Liceida
Class Stemontida
Class Physarida
Phylum Plasmodiophoromycota
Kingdom Plantae
Subkingdom Algae
Phylum Rhodophyta...........................................red algae, deep seaweeds
Phylum Phaeophyta..............................................brown algae, seaweeds
Phylum Chlorophyta.......................................................green algae
?Phylum Charophyta
Subkingdom Embryophyta
Infrakingdom Bryophyta
Phylum Bryophyta
Class Hepaticae..................................................liverworts
Class Anthocerotae................................................hornworts
Class Musci..........................................................mosses
Infrakingdom Tracheohpyta..................................................vascular plants
Superphylum Prospermopsida
Phylum Psilopsida..................................psilophytes, dominant in Devonian
Phylum Lycopodophyta.......................................dominant in Carboniferous
Class Lycopodiae
Order Lycopodiales
Family Lycopoliaceae.................club mosses
Genus Lycopodium
Phylum Sphenophyta...........................dominant in Carboniferous (1 genus now)
Class Equisetae
Order Equisetales
Family Equisetaceae...................horsetails
Genus Equisetum
Phylum Filicinophyta (Pteropsida)
Class Filicae.........................................................ferns
Superphylum Spermopsida..............................spermatophyta, embryobearing seeds
Phylum Gymnospermae
Subphylum Pteridospermae...............................................seed ferns
Subphylum Ginkgophyta....................................................ginkgoes
Subphylum Gnetophyta
Subphylum Coniferophyta
Order Coniferales......................................conifers
Family Taxaceae
Genus Taxus
Family Pinaceae
Genus Pinus.......................pines
Genus Lari
Genus Picea
Genus Abies
Genus Tsuga
Genus Taxodium
Genus Chamaecyparis
Genus Thuja
Genus Juniperus
Subphylum Cycadophyta..................................................seed ferns
Phylum Angiospermophyta
Class Monocotyledoneae
Order Liliales
Family Liliaceae..........................lilies
Genus Smila
Class Dicotyledoneae
Subclass Archichlamydeae
Order Salicales
Family Salicaceae
Genus Sali
Genus Populus
Order Myricales
Family Myricaceae....................wax myrtles
Genus Myrica
Genus Comptonia
Order Leitneriales
Family Leitneriaceae
Genus Leitneria
Order Juglandales
Family Juglandaceae.......................walnut
Genus Juglans
Genus Carya
Order Fagales
Family Corylaceae
Genus Corylus
Genus Ostrya
Genus Carpinus
Genus Betula
Genus Alnu
Family Fagaceae
Genus Fagus
Genus Castanea
Genus Quercus
Order Urticales
Family Ulmaceae.............................elms
Genus Ulmus
Genus Planera
Genus Celtis..................hackberry
Family Moraceae.........................mulberry
Genus Morus
Genus Broussonetia
Genus Maclura
Order Santalales
Family Santalaceae....................sandalwood
Genus Pyrularia
Genus Nestronia
Genus Buckleya
Family Loranthaceae
Genus Phoradendron
Genus Arceuthobium
Order Aristolochiales
Family Aristolochiaceae................birthwort
Genus Aristolochia
Order Ranales
Family Ranunculaceae
Genus Clematis
Genus Xanthorhiza
Family Berberidaceae....................barberry
Genus Berberis
Family Menispermaceae
Genus Cocculus
Genus Menispermum
Genus Calycocarpum
Family Mangoliaceae.....................magnolia
Genus Mangolia
Genus Liriodendron
Family Calycanthaceae
Genus Calycanthus
Family Annonaceae
Genus Asimina
Family Lauraceae..........................laurel
Genus Persea
Genus Sassafras
Genus Litsea
Genus Lindera
Order Rosales
Family Saxifrangaceae.................saxifrange
Genus Philadelphus
Genus Decumaria
Genus Hydrangea
Genus Itea
Genus Ribes
Family Hamamelidaceae................witch hazel
Genus Hamamelis
Genus Fothergilla
Genus Liquidambar
Family Platanaceae....................plane tree
Genus Platanus.................sycamore
Family Rosaceae............................roses
Genus Physocarpus
Genus Spiraea
Genus Pyrus
Genus Amelanchier
Genus Crataegus
Genus Cotoneaster
Genus Potentilla
Genus Dryas
Genus Rubus
Genus Rosa
Genus Runus
Family Leguminosae.........................beans
Genus Acacia
Genus Albizzia
Genus Gymnocladus
Genus Gleditsia
Genus Cercis
Genus Cladrastis
Genus Genista
Genus Cytisus
Genus Ule
Genus Amorpha
Genus Robinia
Genus Wisteria
Genus Colutea
Genus Lespedeza
Order Geraniales
Family Rutaceae...........................orange
Genus Xanthoxylum
Genus Phellodendron
Genus Ptelea
Genus Poncirus
Family Simaroubaceae
Genus Ailanthus
Family Meliaceae........................mahogany
Genus Melia
Family Euphorbiaceae
Genus Andrachne
Order Sapindales
Family Empetraceae
Genus Empetrum
Genus Corema
Family Anacardiaceae
Genus Cotinus
Genus Rhus
Family Cyrillaceae
Genus Cyrilla
Family Aquifoliaceae.......................holly
Genus Ile
Genus Nemopanthus
Family Celastraceae
Genus Euonymus
Genus Pachistima
Genus Celastrus
Family Staphylaceae
Genus Staphylea
Family Aceraceae
Genus Acer........................maple
Family Hippocastanaceae
Genus Aesculus
Family Sapindaceae
Genus Sapindus................soapberry
Order Rhamnales
Family Rhamnaceae
Genus Berchemia
Genus Rhamnus
Genus Ceanothus
Family Vitaceae............................vines
Genus Ampelopsis
Genus Cissus
Genus Parthenocissus
Genus Vitis
Order Mavales...........................................mallows
Family Tiliaceae
Genus Tilia
Family Malvaceae..........................mallow
Genus Hibiscus.................hibiscus
Order Parietales
Family Theaceae
Genus Stewartia
Family Guttiferae
Genus Ascyrum
Genus Hypericum
Family Tamaricaceae
Genus Tamari
Family Cistaceae
Genus Hudsonia
Order Myrtales
Family Thymelaeaceae
Genus Dirca
Genus Daphne
Family Elaeagnaceae
Genus Eleagnus
Genus Shepherdia
Family Lythraceae....................loosestrife
Genus Decodon
Family Nyssaceae........................sour gum
Genus Nyssa
Order Umbellales
Family Araliaceae
Genus Aralia
Genus Oplophana
Genus Hedera
Family Cornaceae.........................dogwood
Genus Cornus
Subclass Metachlamydeae
Order Ericales
Family Clethraceae
Genus Clethra
Family Pyrolaceae....................wintergreen
Genus Chimaphla
Family Ericaceae...........................heath
Genus Ledum
Genus Rhododendron
Genus Menziesia
Genus Leiophyllum
Genus Loiseleuria
Genus Kalmia
Genus Phyllodoce
Genus Andromeda
Genus Zenobia
Genus Pieris
Genus Lyonia
Genus Leucotho˙eu
Genus Oxydendrum
Genus Chamaedaphne
Genus Cassiope
Genus Epigaea
Genus Gaultheria
Genus Arctostaphylos
Genus Calluna
Genus Erica
Genus Gaylussacia
Genus Vaccinium
Order Ebenales
Family Sapotaaceae.....................sapodilla
Genus Bumelia
Family Ebenaceae...........................ebony
Genus Diospyros
Family Symplocaceae
Genus Symplocos
Family Styracaceae
Genus Halesia................silverbell
Genus Styrax...................snowbell
Order Oleales
Family Oleaceae............................olive
Genus Fraxinus
Genus Syringa
Genus Forestiera
Genus Chionanthus
Genus Osmanthus
Genus Ligustrum
Order Gentianales
Family Loganiaceae.......................logania
Genus Gelsemium
Family Asclepiadaceae...................milkweed
Genus Periploca
Order Polemoniales
Family Verbenaceae.......................verbena
Genus Callicarpa
Family Solanaceae.....................nightshade
Genus Solanum
Genus Lycium
Family Scrophulariaceae..................figwort
Genus Paulownia
Family Bignoniaceae......................begonia
Genus Campsis
Genus Bignonia
Genus Catalpa
Order Rubiales
Family Rubiaceae..........................madder
Genus Mitchella
Genus Caphalanthus
Family Caprifolliaceae...............honeysuckle
Genus Diervilla
Genus Lonicera
Genus Symphoricarpos
Genus Linnaea
Genus Vibirnum
Genus Sambucus
Order Campanulales
Family Compositae
Genus Baccharis
Genus Iva
Genus Borrichia
Genus Calendula................marigold
Genus Tagetes..................marigold
Order Cyperales....grasses, 8,000 to 10,000 species
Family Poaceae/Gramineae
Subfamily Pooideae
Subfamily Panicoideae
Subfamily Bambusoideae
Subfamily Chloridoideae
Subfamily Arundinoideae
Subfamily Oryzoideae
Kingdom Fungi
Phylum Zygomycota
Class Mucorales
Class Entomophthorales
Class Zoopagales
Phylum Ascomycota
Class Hemiascomycetae
Class Euascomycetae
Class Loculoascomycetae
Class Laboulbeniomyceatae
Phylum Basidiomycota
Class Heterobasidiomycetae
Class Homobasidiomycetae
Phylum Deuteromycota
Class Sphaeropsida
Class Melanconia
Class Monilia
Class Mycelia Sterilia
Phylum Mycophycophyta........................................................Lichens
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Parazoa
Phylum Placozoa..........................................................one species
Genus Trichopla
Phylum Porifera..............................................................sponges
Class Calcarea...............................................chalky sponges
Class Hexactinellida..........................................glass sponges
Class Desmospongiae
Class Sclerospongiae
Subkingdom Mesozoa...........................................like Porifera but have one organ
Phylum Mesozoa
Class Dicyemida
Class Orthonectida
Subkingdom Metazoa..............................tissues organized into organs & organ systems
Infrakingdom Radiata..................................................two layers of tissue
Phylum Coelenterata
Class Hydrozoa
Class Scyphozoa...................................................jellyfish
Class Anthozoa........................................sea anemones & corals
Phylum Ctenophora.......................................................comb jellies
Class Tentaculata
Class Nuda
Infrakingdom Acoelomata.............................three tissue layers but no body cavity
Phylum Acoelomata
Subphylum Platyhelminthes...............................................flatworms
Class Turbellaria......................................freeliving flatworms
Class Trematoda......................................................flukes
Class Cestoda.....................................................tapeworms
Subphylum Nemertina...............................................proboscis worms
Infrakingdom Pseudocoelomata....................body cavity but not surrounded by mesoderm
Phylum Pseudocoelomata
Subphylum Acanthocephala.......................................spiny-headed worms
Subphylum Aschelminthes
Class Rotifera.....................................................rotifers
Class Gastrotricha
Class Kinorhyncha
Class Priapulida
Class Nematoda..................................................round worms
Class Nematomorpha..........................................horsehair worms
Subphylum Entoprocta
Infrakingdom Coelomata........................body cavity surrounded by mesoderm, a coelom
Superphylum Protostomia........................................blastopore becomes mouth
Phylum Lophophorata
Subphylum Ectoprocta......................................bryozoans, moss animals
Class Gymnolaemata
Class Phylactolaemata
Subphylum Phoronida
Subphylum Brachiopoda.................................................lamp shells
Class Inarticulata
Class Articulata
Phylum Mollusca.............................................................molluscs
Class Amphineura
Class Monoplacophora
Class Gastropoda.....................................................snails
Class Scaphopoda
Class Pelecypoda...................................................bivalves
Class Cephalopoda......................................squids, octopi, etc.
Subclass Nautiloidea..........................two genera, external shell
Order Nautilida
Family Nautilidae
Genus Nautilus.......chambered nautilus
Genus Allonautilus......Crusty nautilus
Order Bacritina*..............ancestors of Ammonites & Coleoids
Subclass Ammonoidea*......................Ammonites, exinct Celphalopods
Order Clymeniina*
Order Anarcestina*
Order Prolecantina*
Order Goniatitina*
Order Ceratitina*
Order Lytoceratina*
Order Ancyloceratina*
Order Ammonitina*................................true Ammonites
Order Phylloceratina*
Subclass Coleoidea........................internal, reduced, or no shell
Superorder Octopodiformes...............................eight legs
Order Belemnitina*...................................belemnites
Order Octopoda...........................octopuses, 150 species
Suborder Cirrina...................finned deep-sea octopuses
Family Cirroteuthidae
Family Opisthoteuthidae
Suborder Incirrina
Family Bolitaenidae.........gelatinous octopuses
Family Amphitretidae...........telescope octopus
Family Vitreledonellidae...........glass octopus
Superfamily Argonautoidea
Family Argonautidae....................Argonauts
Family Ocythoidae...............football octopus
Family Tremoctopodidae.........blanket octopuses
Family Alloposidae.............seven-arm octopus
Family Octopodidae.............benthic octopuses
Order Vampyromorpha
Family Vampyroteuthidae............vampire squid
Superorder Decapodiformes...............eight legs & two tentacles
Order Spirulida
Family Spirulidae...............Ram's Horn Squid
Order Sepiida
Family Sepiidae.....................cuttlefishes
Order Sepiolida
Family Sepiolidae.................bobtail squids
Family Sepiariidae.............bottletail squids
Order Idiosepiida
Family Idiosepiidae.................pygmy squids
Order Teuthida...........................................squids
Suborder Myopsina
Family Loliginidae.....inshore & calamari squids
Genus Loligo...............market squid
Genus Sepioteuthis.............Calamari
Family Pickfordiateuthidae..........grass squids
Suborder Oegopsina
Family Architeuthidae
Genus Architeuthis..........giant squid
Family Bathyteuthidae
Family Chtenopterygidae.......comb-finned squids
Family Cranchiidae..................glass squids
Family Enoploteuthidae
Family Gonatidae..................armhook squids
Family Histioteuthidae..............jewel squids
Family Joubiniteuthidae..........Joubin's squids
Family Magnapinnidae...............bigfin squids
Family Octopoteuthidae..........eight-arm squids
Family Mastigoteuthidae.........whip-lash squids
Family Chiroteuthidae
Family Ommastrephidae..............flying squids
Family Onychoteuthidae.............hooked squids
Family Pyroteuthidae.................fire squids
Family Thysanoteuthidae..........rhomboid squids
Phylum Sipunculida
Phylum Echiurida
Phylum Annelida......................................................segmented worms
Class Polychaeta......................................sand worms, tubeworms
Class Oligochaeta................................................earthworms
Class Hirudinea.....................................................leeches
Phylum Onychophora
Phylum Tardigrada.........................................................water bear
Phylum Pentastomida
Phylum Arthropoda
Subphylum Trilobita*.........................trilobites, extinct end of Paleozoic
Subphylum Chelicerata
Class Eurypterida*
Class Xiphosura.............................................horseshoe crabs
Order Xiphosura....................................four species
Genus Limulus.....Delaware horshoe crab
Class Arachnida.............................spiders, scorpions, ticks, etc.
Class Pycnogonida...............................................sea spiders
Subphylum Mandibulata
Class Crustacea
Subclass Malacostraca
Superorder Eucarida
Order Decapoda
Infraorder Stenopodidea
Infraorder Caridea................................shrimps
Infraorder Penaeidea...............................prawns
Infraorder Astacidea.............................lobsters
Infraorder Palinuridea...........................lobsters
Infraorder Anomura..................................crabs
Infraorder Brachyrua
Infraorder Thalassinidea
Order Euphausiacea
Family Thysanopodidae......................Krill
Superorder Hoplocarida
Order Stomatopoda................................mantis shrimps
Superorder Peracarida
Order Amphipoda.......................................amphipods
Order Isopoda
Subclass Maxillipoda
Infraclass Cirripedia
Infraclass Copepoda
Class Chilopoda...................................................centipeds
Class Diplopoda....................................................millpeds
Class Pauropoda
Class Symphyla
Class Insecta
Order Colembola.....................................springtails
Order Protura
Order Deplura
Order Thysanura....................................bristletails
Order Ephemerida.......................................mayflies
Order Odonata.......................................dragonflies
Order Orthoptera............grasshopers, crickets, cockcroaches
Order Dermaptera........................................earwigs
Order Embiaria
Order Plecoptera.....................................stoneflies
Order Zoraptera
Order Corrodentia.....................................book lice
Order Mallophaga...................................chewing lice
Order Anoplura.....................................sucking lice
Order Thysanoptera.......................................thrips
Order Hemiptera..............cicadas, aphids, leafhoppers, etc.
Order Neuroptera................................lacewings, etc.
Order Coleoptera.........................bettles, weevils, etc.
Order Hymenoptera.......................wasps, bees, ants, etc.
Order Mecoptera...................................scorpionflies
Order Siphonaptera........................................fleas
Order Diptera............................true flies, mosquitoes
Order Trichoptera
Order Lepidoptera............................moths, butterflies
Superphylum Deuterostomia.......................................blastopore becomes anus
Phylum Pogonophora........................................................bear worms
Phylum Echinodermata........................................................starfish
Class Crinoidea..................................................sea lilies
Class Asteroidea...................................................starfish
Class Ophiuroidea.......................................brittle stars, etc.
Class Echinoidea............................sea urchins, sand dollars, etc.
Class Holothuroidea...........................................sea cucumbers
Phylum Chaetognatha
Phylum Chordata
Subphylum Hemichordata
Class Enteropneusta.............................................arrow worms
Class Pterobranchia
Subphylum Cephalochordata......................................lancets, amphiocus
Subphylum Urochordata...................................................tunicates
Class Ascidiacea................................................sea squirts
Class Thaliacea
Class Larvacea
Subphylum Vertebrata
Superclass Pisces
Class Agnatha
Subclass Monorhina...........................dorsal nostril between eyes
Order Cephalaspida*
Order Anaspida*
Subclass Diplorhina....................................no dorsal nostril
Order Pteraspida*
Order Coelolepida*
Subclass Cyclostomata..............................modern jawless fishes
Order Myxiniformes....................................hagfishes
Order Petromyzontiformes..............................hagfishes
Class Placodermi.........................................first jawed fishes
Order Arthrodira*
Order Pyctodontida*
Order Petalichthyida*
Order Antiarchi*
Order Rhenanida*
Order Phyllolopida*
Order Palaeospondyloidea*
Class Acanthodii...............................................spiny fishes
Order Climatiformes*
Order Ischnacanthiformes*
Order Acanthodiformes*
Class Chondrichthyes....................................cartilainous fishes
Subclass Elasmobranchii...........................................sharks
Order Clasdoselachiformes*
Order Pleuracanthiformes*
Order Heterodontiformes
Order Hexanchiformes
Order Lamniformes
Suborder Galeoidei........................most living sharks
Suborder Squaloidei..........................dogfishes, etc.
Suborder Batoidei..............................skates & rays
Subclass Holocephali...........................................sharklike
Order Chimaeriformes.....................chimaeras or ratfishes
Class Osteichthyes..............................................bony fishes
Subclass Actinopterygii.................................rayfinned fishes
Infraclass Chondrostei............................primitive rayfinned
Order Palaeonisciformes*
Order Polypteriformes
Order Acipenseriformes
Infraclass Holostei............................intermediate rayfinned
Order Semionotiformes*
Order Pycnodontiformes*
Order Amiiformes
Order Aspidorhynchiformes*
Infraclass Teleostei.................................advanced rayfins
Superorder Pholidophoromorpha*
Order Pholidophoriformes*
Superorder Leptolepidomorpha*
Order Leptolepiformes*
Superorder Elopomorpha
Order Elopiformes
Order Anguilliformes.......................................eels
Order Notocanthiformes
Superorder Clupeomorpha
Order Clupeiformes.....................................herrings
Superorder Osteoglossomorpha
Order Osteoglossiformes
Order Mormyriformes
Superorder Protacanthopterygii
Order Salmoniformes..............................salmon & trout
Order Ctenothrissiformes*
Order Gonorhynchiformes
Superorder Ostariophysi
Order Cypriniformes.........................minnows, carp, etc.
Order Siluriformes......................................catfish
Superorder Paracanthopterygii
Order Polymi iiformes
Order Percopsiformes
Order Gadiformes...................................cod, haddock
Order Batrachoidiformes
Order Lophiiformes......................................anglers
Order Gobiesociformes
Superorder Atherinomorpha
Order Atheriniformes................................flying fish
Superorder Acanthopterygii
Order Beryciformes
Order Zeiformes
Order Lampridiformes
Order Gasterosteiformes..............................sea horses
Order Channiformes
Order Synbranchiformes
Order Scorpaeniformes
Order Dactylopteriformes
Order Pegasiformes
Order Perciformes
Order Pleuronectiformes
Order Tetraodontiformes
Subclass Sarcopterygii................................lobe-finned fishes
Order Crossopterygii
Suborder Rhipidistia*
Superfamily Osteolepiformes*
Superfamily Porolepiformes*
Suborder Coelacanthini.......................Genus Latimeria
Order Dipnoi.........................................lungfishes
Superclass Tetrapoda
Class Amphibia
Subclass Labyrinthodontia*
Order Ichthyostegalia*
Order Temnospondyli*
Suborder Rhachitomi*
Suborder Stereospondyli*
Suborder Plagiosauria*
Order Anthracosauria*
Suborder Schizomeri*
Suborder Diplomeri*
Suborder Embolomeri*
Suborder Seymouriamorpha*
Subclass Lepospondyli*
Order Nectridia*
Order Aistopoda*
Order Mecrosauria*
Sublcass Lissamphibia..................................modern amphibians
Superorder Salientia.................................frogs & toads
Order Proanura*
Order Anura................................modern frogs & toads
Superorder Caudata
Order Urodela...............................salamanders & newts
Order Apoda
Class Reptilia
Subclass Anapsida............................................solid skull
Order Cotylosauria*
Suborder Gephyrostegomorpha*
Suborder Captorhinomorpha*
Suborder Procolophonia*
Suborder Diadectomorpha*
Order Chelonia..........................................turtles
Suborder Proganochelydia*
Suborder Amphichelydia*
Suborder Pleurodira
Suborder Cryptodira
Suborder Eunotosuria*
Order Mesosauria*
Subclass Synapsida..................................mammal-like reptiles
Order Pelycosauria*
Suborder Ophiacodontia*
Suborder Sphenacodontia...........................carnivores
Suborder Edaphosauria.............................herbivores
Order Therapsida*
Suborder Anomodontia*
Infraorder Dromasauria*
Infraorder Dinocephalia*
Infraorder Venyukoviamorpha*
Infraorder Dicynodontia*
Suborder Phthinosuchia*
Suborder Theriodontia*
Infraorder Gorgonopsia*
Infraorder Therocephalia*
Infraorder Bauriamorpha*
Infraorder Cynodontia*
Infraorder Tritylodontia*
Infraorder Ictidosauria*
Subclass Euryapsida.............................may be modified Diapsids
Order Protorosuria*
Order Sauropterygia*
Suborder Nothosauria*
Superfamily Pistosauroidea*
Superfamily Pliosauroidea*
Superfamily Plesiosauroidea*
Order Placodontia*
Family Placodontidae*
Family Cyamodontidae*
Family Henodontidae*
Order Ichthysosauria*
Family Utatsusauridae*
Family Omphalosauridae*
Family Mixosauridae*
Family Shastasauridae*
Family Ichthyosauridae*
Genus Ichthyosaurus........dolphin-like
Family Stenopterygiidae*
Family Protoichtyosauridae*
Family Leptopterygiidae*
Subclass Diapsida
Infraclass Lepidosauria
Order Eosuchia*
Order Rhynchocephalia
Order Squamata
Suborder Lacertilia
Suborder Ophidia
Infraclass Archosauria
Order Thecodontia*.......................ancestors of dinosaurs
Suborder Proterosuchia*
Suborder Pseudosuchia*
Suborder Aetosauria*
Suborder Phytosauria*
Order Crocodilia
Suborder Protosuchia*
Suborder Mesosuchia*
Suborder Sebecosuchia*
Suborder Eusuchia
Class Endosauropsida....................................dinosaurs and birds
Subclass Dinosauria*
Order Ornithischia........................bird hipped dinosaurs
Suborder Ornithopoda*
Family Fabrosauirdae*
Family Heterodontosauridae*
Family Dryosauridae*
Family Hypsilophodontidae*
Family Iguanodontidae*
Genus Camptosaurus*
Genus Iguanodon*
Family Hadrosauridae*
Genus Hadrosaurus*
Suborder Pachycephalosauria*
Family Pachycephalosauridae*
Family Homalocephalidae*
Suborder Stegosauria*
Family Scelidosauridae*
Family Stegosauridae*
Genus Stegosaurus*
Suborder Ankylosauria*
Family Nodosauridae*
Family Ankylosauridae*
Genus Ankylosaurus*
Suborder Ceratopsia*
Family Psittacosauridae*
Family Protoceratopsidae*
Family Ceratopsidae*
Genus Monoclonius*
Genus Styracosaurus*
Genus Chasmosaurus*
Genus Triceratops*
Order Saurischia........................lizard hipped dinosaurs
unclassified
Infraorder Segnosauria*
Genus Segnosaurus*
Suborder Palaeopoda*
Infraorder Palaeosauriscia*
Infraorder Plateosauria*
Suborder Sauropodamorpha*
Infraorder Plateosauria*
Family Anchisauridae*
Family Melanorosauridae*
Family Blikanasauridae*
Infraorder Sauropoda*
Family Cetiosauridae
Family Diplodocidae
Genus Brontosaurus*......classical name
Genus Barosaurus*
Genus Diplodocus*
Family Brachiosauridae*
Genus Brachiosaurus*
Genus Bothriospondylus*
Family Titanosauridae*
Genus Alamosaurus*
Family Camarasaurideae*
Genus Camarasaurus*
Family Euhelopodidae
Suborder Theropoda*
unclassified
Family Podokesauridae*
Family Shanshanosauridae*
Family Elmisauridae*
Infraorder Coelurosauria*
Family Compsognathidae
Family Coeluridae*
Infraorder Ornithomimosauria*
Family Oviraptoridae*
Family Ornithomimidae*
Genus Ornithomimus*
Genus Struthiomimus*
Infraorder Deinonychosauria*
Family Deinocheiridae*
Family Dromaeosauridae*
Genus Deinonychus*
Family Saurornithoididae*
Family Therezinosauridae*
Infraorder Carnosauria*
Family Tryannosauridae*
Genus Tyrannosaurus*
Family Megalosauridae*
Genus Megasaurus*
Family Allosauridae*
Genus Allosaurus*
Family Dryptosauridae*
Family Ceratosauridae*
Family Spinosauridae*
Order Pterosauria*
Suborder Rhamphorhynchoidea*
Suborder Pterodactyloidea*
Subclass Aves........................................birds, 9000 species
Infraclass Archaeornithes*
Order Archaeopterygiformes*
Infraclass Neornithes
Superorder Odontognathae*
Order Hesperornitheforms*
Order Ichthyornitheformes*
Superorder Palaeognathae
Order Tinamiformes
Family Tinamidae
Order Struthioniformes
Family Struthionidae...................ostriches
Order Rheiformes*
Family Opisthodactylidae*
Family Rheidae.............................rheas
Order Casuariiformes
Family Casuariidae
Family Dromaiidae
Family Dromornithidae
Order Aepyornithiformes*
Family Aepyornithidae*
Order Dinornithiformes*
Family Dinornithidae........................moas
Order Apterygiformes
Family Apterygidae.........................kiwis
Superorder Neognathae
Order Gaviiformes.........................................loons
Order Podicipediformes...................................grebes
Order Procellariiformes...................albatrosses & petrels
Order Sphenisciformes..................................penguins
Order Pelecaniformes...................................pelicans
Order Ciconoiiformes............................herons & storks
Order Anseriformes........................ducks, geese, & swans
Family Anatidae
Subfamily Cygninae......................swans
Subfamily Anserinae.....................geese
Subfamily Dendrocygninae...........tree ducks
Subfamily Anatinae......................ducks
Genus Mareca...................widgeons
Genus Spatula..................shoveler
Genus Aix.....................wood duck
Genus Anas........mallards, teals, etc.
species platyrhynchos........mallard
Subfamily Aythyinae..............diving ducks
Subfamily Oxyurinae........stiff-tailed ducks
Order Falconiformes............vultures, hawks, falcons, eagles
Order Galliformes.............grouse, quail, turkeys, pheasants
Order Gruiformes...................................cranes, etc.
Order Diatrymiformes*
Order Charadriiformes...............................gulls, etc.
Order Columbiformes.......................pigeons, dodos, doves
Order Psittaciformes....................lories, parrots, macaws
Order Cuculiformes.........................cuckoos, roadrunners
Order Strigiformes.........................................owls
Order Caprimulgiformes
Order Apodiformes..........................swifts, hummingbirds
Order Coliiformes
Order Trogoniformes
Order Coraciiformes...........................kingfishers, etc.
Order Piciformes.....................toucans, woodpeckers, etc.
Order Passeriformes................perching birds, 5300 species
Suborder Oligomyodi...........suboscines; from South America
Infraorder Acanthisittides..............New Zealand wrens
Infraorder Pittides......................broadbills, etc.
Infraorder Tyrannides
Parvorder Thamnophilida...............typical antbirds
Parvorder Furnariida
Superfamily Formicarioidea.........ground antibirds
Superfamily Furnarioidea............ovenbirds, etc.
Suborder Passeres......................oscines; 4000 species
Parvorder Corvida.................evolved in Australia
Superfamily Menuroidea
Superfamily Meliphagoidea
Superfamily Corvoidea..........crows, jays, magpies
Family Corvidae
Genus Perisoreus..............gray jays
Genus Cyanocitta..............blue jays
Genus Aphelocoma.............scrub jays
species coerulescens..California jay
Genus Cyanocorax.............green jays
Genus Pica......................magpies
Genus Corvus.............crows & ravens
Genus Gymnorhinus.............piñon jay
Genus Nucifraga......Clark's nutcracker
Parvorder Passerida
Superfamily Passeroidea........larks, orioles, etc.
Superfamily Sylvioidea..............wrens, swallows
Superfamily Muscicapoidea
Family Bombycillidae....................waxwings
Family Cincilidae........................dippers
Family Turdidae.........................thrushes
Family Sturnidae
Tribe Mimini..................mockingbirds
Tribe Sturnini.......................mynas
Class Mammalia
Sublcass Eotheria*
Order Docodonta*
Order Triconodonta*
Subclass Prototheria
Order Monotremata............................platypus & echidna
Subclass Allotheria*
Order Multituberculata*
Suborder Plagiaulacoidea*
Suborder Taeniolabidoidea*
Suborder Ptilodontoidea*
Subclass Theria
Infraclass Pantotheria*
Order Eupantotheria*
Order Symmetrodonta*
Infraclass Metatheria.........................................pouches
Superorder Marsupialia
Order Marsupicarnivora..................American opossums, etc.
Order Paucituberculata
Order Peramelina.....................................bandicoots
Order Diprotodonta.......................koala, kangaroos, etc.
Suborder Vombatiformes.....................wombats and koala
Suborder Phalangeriformes...Aussi possums, sugar glider, etc.
Suborder Macropodiformes
Family Balbaridae*...........ancestral kangaroos
Family Macropodidae...kangaroos, wallabies, etc.
Family Potoroidae.......bettongs, potaroos, etc.
Family Hypsiprymnodontidae....musky rat-kangaroo
Infraclass Eutheria........................................placentals
Superorder Afrotheria...........................African placentals
Order Tubulidentata...................................aardvarks
Order Proboscidea.....................................elephants
Suborder Moeritherioidea*
Suborder Dinotherioidea*
Suborder Barytherioidea*
Suborder Euelphantoidea
Superfamily Gomphotherioidea*
Superfamily Mastodontoidea................mastodons
Superfamily Elephantoidea......elephants & mammoths
Order Sirenia.................................sea cows/manatees
Order Hyracoidea..........................................Hyrax
Superorder Xenarthra.....................South American placentals
Order Edentata
Suborder Palaeanodonta*
Suborder Cingulata..................armadillos & glyptodonts
Suborder Pilosa............................sloths, anteaters
Order Xenungulata*.....................South American ungulates
Order Pyrotheria*......................South American ungulates
Order Notoungulata*....................South American ungulates
Suborder Notioprogonia*
Suborder Toxodontia*
Suborder Typotheria*
Suborder Hegetotheria*
Order Astrapotheria*...................South American ungulates
Order Litopterna*......................South American ungulates
Superorder Laurasiatheria.....Eurasian & North American placentals
Order Dermoptera
Order Taeniodonta*
Order Tillodontia*
Order Chrioptera...........................................bats
Suborder Microchiroptera
Suborder Megachiroptera
Order Insectivora
Suborder Proteutheria*
Suborder Macroscelidea
Suborder Dilambdodonta.............moles, hedgehogs, & shews
Suborder Zalambdodonta
Order Cetacia............................................whales
Suborder Archaeoceti*
Suborder Odontoceti.................dolphins, toothed whales
Suborder Mysticeti..........................whalebone whales
Order Creodonta..............................ancient carnivores
Suborder Deltatheridia*
Family Deltatheriidae*
Family Didymoconidae*
Suborder Hyaenodontia*
Family Hyaenodontidae*
Family Oxyeanidae*
Order Carnivora
Suborder Fissipedia...................land living carnivores
Superfamily Miacoidea*
Family Miacidae*
Family Viverravidae*
Superfamily Canoidea
Family Canidae..............................dogs
Family Ursidae.............................bears
Family Ailuridae..........................pandas
Family Procyonidae.................racoons, etc.
Family Mustelidae..........skunks, weasels, etc.
Superfamily Feloidea (Aeluroidea)
Family Viverridae
Family Hyaenidae.........................hyaenas
Family Felidae..............................cats
Suborder Pinnipedia...............................seals etc.
Order Condylarthra*
Order Amblypoda*
Suborder Pantodonta*
Suborder Dinocerata*
Order Pholidota.......................................pangolins
Order Perissodacyla..........................odd toed ungulates
Suborder Hippomorpha
Superfamily Equoidea
Family Equidae............................horses
Superfamily Brontotherioidea*
Suborder Ancylopoda*
Suborder Ceratomorpha
Superfamily Tapiroidea.......................tapirs
Superfamily Rhinocerotoidea..................rhinos
Order Ariodacyla............................even toed ungulates
Suborder Paleodonta*
Superfamily Dichobunoidea*
Superfamily Entelodontoidea*
Suborder Suina
Superfamily Suoidea............................pigs
Superfamily Anthracotherioidea*
Superfamily Hippopotamoidea.................hippoes
Suborder Ancodonta*
Superfamily Cainotherioidea*
Superfamily Merycoidondontoidea*
Suborder Tylopoda............................camels & llamas
Suborder Ruminantia................................ruminants
Superfamily Traguloidea
Superfamily Cervoidea
Superfamily Giraffoidea.....................giraffs
Superfamily Bovoidea...........................cows
Order Desmostylia
Order Embrithopoda*
Superorder Euarchontoglires...............rhodents, primates, etc.
Order Rodentia
Suborder Protorogomorpha*
Suborder Sciuromorpha..............................squirrels
Suborder Caviomorpha
Suborder Myomorpha...............................mice & rats
Suborder Castorimorpha...............................beavers
Suborder Theridomyomorpha*
Suborder Hystricomorpha...........................procupines
Suborder Thryonomyomorpha
Suborder Ctenodactylomorpha
Order Lagomorpha........................................rabbits
Order Scandentia
Superfamily Tupaeoidea.............or with Primates
Family Tupaiidae.....................tree shrews
Subfamily Tupaiinae
Genus Tupaia
Genus Dendrogale
Genus Urogale
Subfamily Ptilocercinae
Genus Ptilocerus
Order Primates..............prosimians, monkeys, apes, & humans
Suborder Plesiadapiformes*
Superfamily Paramomyoidea*
Family Paromomyidae*
Family Picrodontidae*
Family Microsyopidae*
Superfamily Plesiadapoidea
Family Plesiadapidae*
Family Saxonellidae*
Family Carpolestidae*
Suborder Strepsirrhines
Infraorder Prosimii
Parvorder Adapiformes*
Family Adapidae*
Parvorder Lemuriformes
Superfamily Lemuroidea
Family Lemuridae..........................lemurs
Subfamily Lemurinae
Genus Lemur
Genus Hapalemur
Genus Lepilemur
Family Megalapidae*
Genus Megalapis*
Superfamily Indrioidea
Family Indriidae
Genus Mesopropithecus*
Genus Indri
Genus Lichanotus
Genus Propithecus
Family Daubentoniidae
Genus Daubentonia
Family Archaeolemuridae*
Genus Archaeolemur*
Genus Hadropithecus*
Family Palaeopropithecidae*
Genus Palaeopropithecus*
Genus Archaeoindris*
Superfamily Lorisoidea
Family Lorisidae.........................lorises
Genus Loris
Genus Nycticebus
Genus Arctocebus
Genus Perodicticus
Family Cheirogaleinae
Genus Cheirogaleus
Genus Microcebus
Genus Phaner
Family Galagidae
Subfamily Galaginae
Genus Galago
Genus Euoticus
Suborder Haplorhines
Infraorder Tarsiiformes
Superfamily Tarsioidea
Family Omomyidae*
Genus Absarokius*
Genus Altanius*
Genus Anaptomorphus*
Genus Anemorphysis*
Genus Chlororhysis*
Genus Chumashius*
Genus Donrussellia*
Genus Dyseolemur*
Genus Ekgmowechashala*
Genus Hemiacodon*
Genus Hoanghonius*
Genus Kohatius*
Genus Loveina*
Genus Macrotarsius*
Genus Mckennamorphus*
Genus Microchoerus*
Genus Nannopithe *
Genus Necrolemur*
Genus Omomys*
Genus Ourayia*
Genus Pseudoloris*
Genus Rooneyia*
Genus Shoshonius*
Genus Stockia*
Genus Teilhardina*
Genus Tetonius*
Genus Trogolemus*
Genus Uintanius*
Genus Utahia*
Genus Washakus*
Family Tarsiidae........................tarsiers
Genus Tarsius
Infraorder Anthropoidea...........monkeys, apes, & humans
Parvorder Platyrrhini................new world monkeys
Superfamily Ceboidea
Family Atelidae*
Genus Cebupitheciae*
Genus Homunculus*
Genus Stirtonia*
Genus Tremacebus*
Genus Xenothrix*
Family Callithriciae...................marmosets
Subfamily Callithricinae
Genus Callithri
Genus Leontocebus...............tamarin
Genus Cebulella
Genus Mico
Genus Marikina
Genus Tamarin
Genus Oedipomidas
Family Cebidae
unclassified
Genus Branisella*
Genus Dolichocebus*
Genus Neosaimiri*
Subfamily Callimiconinae
Genus Callimico
Subfamily Aotinae
Genus Aotes
Genus Callicebus
Subfamily Pthecinae
Genus Pithecia
Genus Chriopotes
Genus Cacajao
Subfamily Alouattinae
Genus Alouatta...................howler
Subfamily Cebinae
Genus Cebus....................capuchin
Genus Saimiri
Subfamily Atelinae
Genus Ateles..............spider monkey
Genus Brachyteles
Genus Lagothri
Parvorder Catarrhini................old world primates
Superfamily Parapithecoidea*
Family Parapithecidae*
Genus Apidium*
Genus Parapithecus*
Superfamily Cercopithecoidea......old world monkeys
Family Oreopithecidae*
Genus Oreopithecus*
Family Cercopithecidae
unclassified
Genus Dinopithecus*
Genus Dolichopithecus*
Genus Gorgopithecus*
Genus Libypithecus*
Genus Mesopithecus*
Genus Paradolichopithecus*
Genus Procynocephalus*
Genus Prohylobates*
Genus Victoriapithecus*
Subfamily Cercopithecinae
Genus Cercopithecoides*
Genus Macaca....................macaque
Genus Cynopithecus
Genus Cercocebus
Genus Papio......................baboon
Genus Theropithecus
Genus Cercopithecus
Genus Erythrocebus
Genus Mandrillus...............mandrill
Subfamily Colobinae
Genus Parcolobus*
Genus Presbytis..................langur
Genus Pygathri
Genus Rhinopithcus
Genus Simias
Genus Nasalis
Genus Colobus
Superfamily Hominoidea................apes & humans
Family Pliopithecidae*
Genus Dendropithecus*
Genus Limnopithecus*
Genus Pliopithecus*
Genus Propliopithecus*
Family Hylobatidae
Subfamily Hyobatinae
Genus Hylobates..................gibbon
Genus Symphlangus...............siamang
Family Pongidae
unclassified
Genus Dryopithecus*
Genus Gigantopithecus*
Genus Proconsul*
Genus Sivapithecus*
Subfamily Ponginae
Genus Pongo...................orangutan
Genus Pan....................chimpanzee
Genus Gorilla
Family Hominidae..........................humans
Subfamily Australopithecinae
Genus Australopithecus
species anamensis.......4.5-3 My ago
species afarensis...........4-2.5 My
species africanus...........2.5-2 My
species garhi...............2.5-2 My
species boisei............2.5-1.5 My
species robustus............1.5-1 My
Subfamily Anthropinae
Genus Homo
species habilis.............2 My ago
species rudolfensis...........1.2 My
species erectus.........1,500-250 ky
species ergaster........1,000-800 ky
species antecessor.........500,000 y
species neanderthalensis......150 ky
species sapiens............300,000 y
variety archaic.........300-30 ky
variety sapiens..........32,000 y.
Copyright (c) 2002, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011 Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D. All Rights Reserved
All Living Things, in Seven Kingdoms, Note 1
All Living Things, in Seven Kingdoms, Note 2
Human cultures, even those that take some care to conceal the genitals of both males and females, have had different attitudes about the display of the the female breast. The 
Egyptians, among major civilizations, seem to have been rather free in this respect; and the exposure of two breasts, one, or none seems more a matter of fashion than of general considerations of modesty or relgious prohibition. We see variations of dress over Egyptian history and even within the same periods.
With modern visual culture, and especially since the advent of Hollywood and Hugh Hefner, a sort of neo-paganism has emerged, as described by Camille Paglia, with considerably more freedom in terms of images, even if there is little retreat, at least in the United States, of "indecent exposure" laws. The female breast, as a compromise between fully concealed sexuality and exposed genitals, has perhaps taken on the full force of representing the erotic beauty, sacrality, and numinosity that was more diffusely embodied by the Greeks and Romans, or even in Hinduism and traditional Japan. Thus, Mardi Gras in New Orleans, while featuring no parading phalluses (tourist attractions in some Japanese villages), nevertheless is now an acceptable venue (more or less) for women to flash their breasts (Americans consequently get accused of a fixation on breasts). Where the nudity taboo is still strongly felt, this sort of behavior, and the accessibility of images of the breast, buttocks, etc., provokes the sort of fear and outrage that we might expect from Mediaeval religion, but it may also bespeak the fearful power of numinosity itself. After all, sacred sexuality does not just feel good or titillate; it is both fascinating and terrifying. The nudity taboo as a prohibition of the unclean, polluted, or unholy is one thing; but nudity and sexuality as beautiful, sublime, and sacred can also be matters of prohibition. I find it hard not to think that the Egyptians or the Greeks did a better job of balancing all this than a lot of later cultures and religions, but it is definitely a job of cultural wiring that involves some powerful and dangerous currents -- as Paglia also appreciated. How to do this right in a modern context, especially with powerful influences from those who don't want to do it at all, is daunting.
(using the ideogram or determinative 
), with the root mnd, looks to be a cognate of malaja, 
, "to suck, suckle," in Arabic. Since the j in Arabic is a g in Proto-Semitic, we have the coincidence of the similar Indo-European root *melg that turns up in Latin mulgere, "to milk," and, indeed, in the English word "milk" itself. A Proto-Semitic *mlg root looks like the zero-grade Aplaut variation of an Indo-European *melg root. The words for "milk" in Latin (lac, gen. lactis), Greek (gála, gen. gálaktos), and Arabic (h.alab, 
) are all from different roots. The coincidence of the mlg roots, however, is one of the fragments of evidence for the common origin of the Indo-European and Semitic language families. The case remains weak for this relationship, but its truth would not be particularly surprising. Nevertheless, we do know of the geographical proximity of the families, and the possibility of the borrowing of this root must be considered.
All Living Things, in Seven Kingdoms, Note 3
Architeuthis was not like Big Foot. Remains of adult animals were found washed ashore from Britain to New Zealand, and other individuals were found in the stomachs of Sperm Whales. Intact adults have been found up to 60 feet long -- although now this is said to be an exaggeration (tentacles have been unnaturally stretched before measurement). The actual bodies (the "mantle") are less than third of that: It is the arms and tentacles that account for the rest of the length. The two tentacles are the longest organs, used for actually snaching prey and carrying it to the mouth. Architeuthis has the largest eyes of any animal. This is consistent with its deep water habits. The squids may frequent depths of 2000 feet or more, where light from above no longer exists, but many animals generate their own light, for various reasons. Sightings of live Architeuthis at the surface have only been at night. The large eyes may also be why living individuals were not been seen at depth. Human deep sea vehicles are usually lit up like Christmas trees, with searchlights and television cameras scanning the area. This is going to be conspicuous, if not positively painful, to Architeuthis, which, if healthy, will be able to avoid being anywhere near would-be observers. Indeed, a large portion of the known species of any kind of squid have not been observed alive. They live in all oceans from top to bottom. Squids are basically pelagic, i.e. live in open water, unlike octopuses, which are benthic, i.e. tend to live on the ocean bottom -- although there are some pelagic octopi and benthic squid. Neither kind of animal has air sacs or voids in its body (although the closely related cuttlefish do). This enables them to easily adapt to any depth or pressure in the ocean. Sperm Whales can dive to great depths to eat Giant Squids, but as their lungs collapse, there are limits. 
The squids do fight back, since such whales often have scars that look like the work of Architeuthis. There are naturalists who have been specifically looking for Giant Squids, and hopefully they will continue to think of strategies or camouflage to overcome how or why it is that the animals tend to avoid observation.
Until 1938, specimens of lobe-finned fishes of the Order Crossopterygii, the ancestors of amphibians, were only known from fossils. They appeared to have died out in the Cretaceous.