The Bishops of Rome, the Popes;
the Patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Armenia, and the East; Archbishops of Canterbury and Prince Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, Cologne, and Salzburg

On the map we have the Roman Empire as it was partially restored at the death of Justinian I. The capital, of course, is Constantinople, with the recovered western areas ruled from Ravenna (Italy, the Exarchate of Ravenna) and Carthage (Africa and Spain, the Exarchate of Carthage). The Roman Catholic Church is governed through the Emperor and the Patriarchs, namely the Patriarchs of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, in that order of precedence. The role of the Emperor in governing the Church is now called "caesaro-papism," i.e. an Emperor acting like a Pope. However, the Emperor had exercised his powers since Constantine I, while the familiar powers of the Pope were much later claims and inventions. It is thus much less anarchonistic to characterize the claims of later Popes, not the Emperors, as the "caesaro-papism," i.e. the Pope trying to act like an Emperor. Chief among the powers of the Emperor -- the "Equal of the Apostles," always portrayed with a halo, -- was that of calling Church Councils, as Constantine had called the Council of Nicaea in 325. The first Council called by a Pope was the Lateran Council I in 1123. To resolve the Great Schism, the Council of Constance, 1414-1418, was called by the Emperor Sigismund; but once a single line of Popes was secure in Rome again, they denied that the Emperor had any authority to call Councils. The last Emperor in any position, and with any need, to call a Council, Charles V, deferred to the Pope -- who then was the one to call the Council of Trent, 1545-1563. At the time of Justinian, the Pope was regarded as primus inter pares, first among equals of the Patriarchs, but that was all. The Patriarch of Constantinople was made second in rank, although this was a bit resented by the other, older Patriarchates.

The diagram at right gives some impression of how the Una Sancta Romana Catholica et Apostolica Ecclesia, the "One Holy Roman Catholic and Apostolic Church" has broken up -- setting aside the Protestant fragmention of the See of Rome in the West, which of course would require a complex diagram in its own right. While the Coptic and Syrian Churches broke away over Chalcedon, there remained a continuous line of Greek Patriarchs in Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, even as the Patriarch of Constantinople proselytized Bulgaria, Russia, and other states in the Balkans. Beginning with the Crusades, the Church of Rome sought converts over the same territory; and so we see Catholic churches and counter-churches swarming around the older, Orthodox ones. The counter-churches double up with the existing Orthodox churches, but sometimes a Catholic church exists, e.g. in the Ukraine or Ruthenia, where a separate Orthodox one doesn't. The Popes claim doctrinal authority, while the doctrine of Constantinople is based on the Church Councils.

Just how people can be confused about the history of the Church we see in a statement by film maker Francis Ford Coppola in the director's commentary on his movie, Bram Stoker's Dracula [1991, 2007]:

The Orthodox religions, Greek Orthodox, Romanian Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, is [sic] in fact the original Christianity and, for my part, I think the most beautiful expression of Christianity -- that Roman Catholicism is Christianity having been fused with the Roman Empire and really I think has more to do with the Roman Empire than it does with Christianity. [transcribed from audio track]

In this period there were five significant centers of Christianity outside what had ever been in the Roman Empire:  in the Caucasus, in Mesopotamia, in India, in Ethiopia, and in Ireland. In the Caucasus were the Churches of Georgia and Armenia. Georgia was doctrinally in union with Romania, but Armenia had not accepted the decision of the Fourth Ecumenical Council. The Patriarchate of Armenia was thus regarded by the Roman Church as heterodox. Similarly heterodox was the Patriarchate of the East, seated at the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, which had not accepted the decision of the Third Ecumenical Council -- and thus is often called the "Nestorian" Church, after the doctrine condemned by the Third Council. The authority of the Patriarch of the East already extended to Christians in India, and subsequently would reach all the way to China. Ethiopia was under the authority of the Patriarch of Alexandria and so, until the Fourth Ecumenical Council, was doctrinally in union with Rome -- later it would continue to follow the lead of the Coptic Church. Ethiopia has had its own autonomous Patriarchate just since 1959. That leaves Ireland, which traditionally was converted by St. Patrick after 432 AD. As communication between Ireland and the Empire became more tenuous, the Irish Church preserved literacy, as Britain itself fell out of history, and developed some of its own traditions -- though these never came to serious heterodoxy and any differences were later fixed up. As Irish nationalism later became identified with the Catholic Church, over and against the Protestant Church of England and British rule in Ireland, Ireland became one of the most staunchly Catholic states in Europe -- and today, with Poland, provides a disproportionate number of priests to the Catholic Church.

Philosophy of History

Philosophy of Religion

Patriarchal Index

• Introduction
• Bishops of Rome and Popes
  • Patriarchs of Aquileia, Grado, and Venice
  • Archbishops of Canterbury
  • Archbishops of Milan
  • Archbishop-Electors of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne
  • Prince-Bishops of Liège
  • Archbishops of Salzburg
• Patriarchs of Constantinople
  • Primates of Russia, Metropolitans & Patriarchs of Kiev & Moscow
  • Latin Patriarchs of Constantinople
  • Armenian Patriarchs of Constantinople
• Coptic Patriarchs of Alexandria
  • Melkite Patriarchs of Alexandria
  • Latin Patriarchs of Alexandria
  • Patriarchs of Ethiopia
• Patriarchs of Antioch
  • Syrian Orthodox Patriarchs of Antioch
  • Maronite Patriarchs of Lebanon
  • Latin Patriarchs of Antioch
  • Melkite Greek Catholic Patriarchs of Antioch
• Patriarchs of Jerusalem
  • Armenian Patriarchs of Jerusalem
  • Latin Patriarchs of Jerusalem
  • Jerusalem in Sacred Geography
    • Purgatory
• Patriarchs of Armenia
  • Patriarchs of the Great House of Cilicia
• Patriarchs of the East

The Bishops of Rome, the Popes,
42 AD-present

BISHOPS OF ROME
1 St. Peter	c.42-c.64
2 St. Linus	c.66-c.78
3 St. Anacletus	c.79-c.91
4 St. Clement I	c.91-c.101
5 St. Evaristus	c.100-c.109
6 St. Alexander I	c.109-c.116
7 St. Sixtus I	c.116-c.125
8 St. Telesphorus	c.125-c.136
9 St. Hyginus	c.138-c.142
10 St. Pius I	c.142-c.155
11 St. Anicetus	c.155-c.166
12 St. Soterus	c.166-c.174
13 St. Eleutherius	c.174-189
14 St. Victor I	189-198
15 St. Zephirinus	198/9-217
16 St. Calixtus/ Callistus I	217-222
[St. Hippolytus]	217-235
17 St. Urban I	222-230
18 St. Pontianus	230-235
19 St. Anterius	235-236
20 St. Fabianus	236-250
killed in persecution of Decius, 250
21 St. Cornelius	251-253
[Novatianus]	251-258
22 St. Lucius I	253-254
23 St. Stephen I	254-257
24 St. Sixtus II	257-258
25 St. Dionysius	260-268
26 St. Felix I	269-274
27 St. Eutychianus	275-283
28 St. Caius/Gaius	283-296
29 St. Marcellinus	296-303/4
Persecution of Diocletian, 303; apostasy of Marcellinus
Sedê Vacantê	304-306/8
30 St. Marcellus I	306/8-308/9
31 St. Eusebius	309/10
32 St. Melchiades/ Miltiades	311-314
Toleration by Maxentius & Constantine, gift of Lateran Palace, 312
POPES
33 St. Sylvester I	314-335
325 Council I, Nicaea I, Arianism condemned; Nicene Creed
34 St. Marcus I	336
35 St. Julius I	337-352
36 Liberius	352-366
Meletian Schism, 361-401
[St. Felix II]	355-365
37 St. Damasus I	366-384
381 Council II, Constantinople I, Arianism condemned; regarded as definitively establishing Roman Catholic orthodoxy
[Ursinus]	366-367
38 St. Siricius	384-399
39 St. Anastasius I	399-401
40 St. Innocent I	401-417
41 St. Zosimus	417-418
[Eulalius]	418-419
42 St. Boniface I	418-422
43 St. Celestine I	422-432
431 Council III, Ephesus, Nestorianism condemned
44St. Sixtus/ Xystus III	432-440
45 St. Leo I the Great	440-461
449 "Robber" Council, Ephesus II, Monophysitism affirmed, still recognized by Monophysite Churches; 451 Council IV, Chalcedon, Monophysitism condemned; fatal disaffection of Syria & Egypt
46 St. Hilarus (Hilary)	461-468
47 St. Simplicius	468-483
48 St. Felix III (II)	483-492
49 St. Gelasius I	492-496
50 St. Anastasius II	496-498
51 St. Symmachus	498-514
[Laurentius]	498-499, 501-506, d.507/08
52 St. Hormisdas	514-523
53 St. John I	523-526
54 St. Felix IV (III)	526-530
[Dioscorus]	530
55 Boniface II	530-532
56 John II	533-535
57 St. Agapetus Agapitus I	535-536
58 St. Sylverius	536-537
59 Vigilius	537-555
553 Council V, Constantinople II, Monophysitism condemned again
60 Pelagius I	556-561
61 John III	561-574
62 Benedict I	575-579
63 Pelagius II	579-590
64 St. Gregory I the Great	590-604
65 Sabinianus	604-606
66 Boniface III	607
67 St. Boniface IV	608-615
68 St. Deusdedit/ Adeodatus I	615-618
69 Boniface V	619-625
70 Honorius I	625-638
condemned as Monothelete heretic by Council VI
Sedê Vacantê	638-640
71 Severinus	640
72 John IV	640-642
73 Theodore I	642-649
74 St. Martin I	649-653, d.655
arrested by Emperor Constans II and died in exile in Crimea
75 St. Eugenius I	654-657
76 St. Vitalianus	657-672
77 Adeodatus II	672-676
78 Domnus/Donus (I)	676-678
79 St. Agathon	678-681
680-681 Council VI, Constantinople III, Monotheletism condemned
80 St. Leo II	682-683
81 St. Benedict II	684-685
82 John V	685-686
83 Conon	686-687
[Theodorus]	687
[Paschal]	687, d.692
84 St. Sergius I	687-701
ordered arrested but Italian garrison refuses
85 John VI	701-705
86 John VII	705-707
87 Sisinnius	708
88 Constantine I	708-715
last Pope to visit Constantinople
89 St. Gregory II	715-731
90 St. Gregory III	731-741
appeals to Franks for help against Lombards
91 St. Zacharias	741-752
92 Stephen II ??	752
93 Stephen III (II)	752-757
754 Donation of Pepin, Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna becomes Papal States
94 St. Paul I	757-767
[Constantine II]	767-768
[Philip]	768
95 Stephen IV (III)	768-772
96 Hadrian/Adrian I	772-795
787 Council VII, Nicaea II, Iconoclasm condemned under guidance of Empress Irene; 794 Council of Frankfurt, Frankish Church rejects Council VII, contradicts Pope
97 St. Leo III	795-816
800 crowns Charlemagne Roman Emperor; gives Papacy basis for claiming sovereign rights over later Holy Roman Emperors
98 Stephen V (IV)	816-817
99 St. Paschal I	817-824
100 Eugenius II	824-827
101 Valentinus	827
102 Gregory IV	827-844
[John]	844
103 Sergius II	844-847
Sack of Ostia & Rome by the Aghlabids, 846
104 St. Leo IV	847-855
105 Benedict III	855-858
[Anastasius]	855
106 St. Nicholas I	858-867
107 Hadrian II	867-872
869-870 Council VIII, Constantinople IV, patched up filioque and other differences, later repudiated by East, last Oecumenical Council recognized by West which included Eastern Church
108 John VIII	872-882
109 Martin II/ Marinus I	882-884
110 St. Hadrian III	884-885
111 Stephen VI (V)	885-891
112 Fromosus	891-896
113 Boniface VI	896
114 Stephen VII (VI)	896-897
115 Romanus	897
116 Theodore II	897
117 John IX	898-900
118 Benedict IV	900-903
119 Leo V	903, d.904
[Christopher ??]	903-904
120 Sergius III	904-911
121 Anastasius III	911-913
122 Lando	913-914
123 John X	914-928, d.929
124 Leo VI	928
125 Stephen VIII (VII)	928-931
126 John XI of Spoleto	931-935/6
127 Leo VII	936-939
128 Stephen IX (VIII)	939-942
129 Martin III/ Marinus II	942-946
130 Agapetus II	946-955
131 John XII Octavian of Spoleto	955-964
East Frankish Otto crowned Emperor after he defeats Magyars
132 Leo VIII ??	963, 964-965
133 Benedict V	964, d.966
134 John XIII	965-972
135 Benedict VI	973-974
[Boniface VII Franco]	974-985
{Domnus II}	c.974
136 Benedict VII	974-983
137 John XIV Peter Canepanova	983-984
138 John XV	985-996
139 Gregory V Bruno	996-999
[John XVI John Philagathos]	997-998, d.1001
140 Sylvester II Gerbert	999-1003
141 John XVII John Sicco	1003
142 John XVIII John Fasanus	1003-1009
143 Sergius IV Peter	1009-1012
144 Benedict VIII Theophylact of Tusculum	1012-1024
[Gregory (VI)]	1012
145 John XIX Romanus of Tusculum	1024-1032
146 Benedict IX !! Theophylact of Tusculum	1032-1044, 1045, & 1047-48, d.1055/56
147 Sylvester III ?? John of Sabina	1045, d.1063
148 Gregory VI John Gratian	1045-1046, d.1047
149 Clement II Suidger	1046-1047
150 Damasus II Poppo	1048
151 St. Leo IX Bruno	1049-1054
1054 Schism between Eastern and Western Churches, "Donation of Constantine" cited
152 Victor II Gerbhard	1055-1057
153 Stephen X (IX) Frederick of Lorraine	1057-1058
[Benedict X ?? John Mincius]	1058-1059, d.1073
154 Nicholas II Gerard	1058-1061
decree for election of Popes by a college of Cardinals; beginning of Papal heyday
155 Alexander II Anselm	1061-1073
[Honorius (II) Peter Cadalus]	1061-1064, d.1071/2
156 St. Gregory VII Hildebrand	1073-1085
1076-1122 Investiture Controversy
[Clement (III) Guibert]	1080, 1084-1100
Sedê Vacantê	1085-1086
157 Victor III Desiderius	1086, 1087
158 Urban II Odo/Eudes	1088-1099
1096-1099 First Crusade, defeats Seljuks, recaptures Jerusalem
159 Paschal II Rainerius	1099-1118
[Theodoric]	1100-1101, d.1102
[Albert]	1101
[Sylvester (IV) Maginulf]	1105-1111
160 Gelasius II John of Gaeta	1118-1119
[Gregory (VIII) Maurice Burdinus]	1118-1121, d.1140
161 Callistus II Guy/Guido of Burgundy	1119-1124
1123 Lateran Council I
162 Honorius II Lamberto	1124-1130
[Celestine (II) Teobaldo]	1124, d.1125/26
163 Innocent II Gregorio Papareschi	1130-1143
1139 Lateran Council II
[Anacletus II Pietro]	1130-1138
[Victor IV Gregorio Conti]	1138
164 Celestine II Guido of Città di Castello	1143-1144
165 Lucius II Gherardo Caccianemici	1144-1145
166 Eugenius III Bernardo Pignatelli	1145-1153
1147-1149 Second Crusade
167 Anastasius IV Corrado	1153-1154
168 Hadrian IV Nicholas Breakspear	1154-1159
only English Pope, confers Ireland on Henry II of England
169 Alexander III Orlando Bandinelli	1159-1181
1179 Lateran Council III
[Victor IV Ottaviano of Monticelli]	1159-1164
[Paschal III Rainald of Dassel]	1164-1168
[Callistus (III) Giovanni]	1168-1178, d.1183
[Innocent (III) Lando]	1179-1180
170 Lucius III Ubaldo Allucingoli	1181-1185
171 Urban III Umberto Crivelli	1185-1187
172 Gregory VIII Alberto de Morra	1187
173 Clement III Paolo Scolari	1187-1191
1189-1192 Third Crusade
174 Celestine III Giacinto Bobo	1191-1198
175 Innocent III Lotario	1198-1216
1202-1204 Fourth Crusade; Constantinople taken by Crusaders in employ of Venice, first break in line of Roman (Rhômaic/Byzantine) Emperors; 1215 Lateran Council IV; Albigensian Crusade, 1209-1229
176 Honorius III Cencio Savelli	1216-1227
1217-1221 Fifth Crusade #1
177 Gregory IX Ugo of Segni	1227-1241
1228-1229 Fifth Crusade #2, Frederick II excommunicated both for not going on Crusade and then for going on one and negotiating the possession of Jerusalem (until 1244)
178 Celestine IV Goffredo da Castiglione	1241
Sedê Vacantê	1241-1243
179 Innocent IV Sinibaldo Fieschi	1243-1254
1248-1254 Sixth Crusade, St. Louis IX of France; 1245 Council of Lyon I
180 Alexander IV Rinaldo of Segni	1254-1261
181 Urban IV Jacques Pantaléon	Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, 1255-1261
	1261-1264
182 Clement IV Guy Foulques	1265-1268
requests work from Roger Bacon, 1266
Sedê Vacantê	1268-1271
183 Gregory X Teobaldo Visconti	1271-1276
1270 Seventh Crusade, St. Louis IX of France, got no further than Tunisia; 1274 Council of Lyon II
184 Innocent V Pierre of Tarentaise	1276
185 Hadrian V Ottobono Fieschi	1276
186 John XXI !! Pedro Julião	1276-1277
187 Nicholas III Giovanni Gaetano	1277-1280
188 Martin IV Simon de Brie	1281-1285
189 Honorius IV Giacomo Savelli	1285-1287
190 Nicholas IV Girolamo Masci	1288-1292
Sedê Vacantê	1292-1294
191 St. Peter Celestine V Pietro del Morrone	1294-1294, d.1296
192 Boniface VIII Benedetto Caetani	1294-1303
most exaggerated claims for the mediaeval Papacy; humiliated by Philip the Fair of France
193 Benedict XI Niccolò Boccasino	1303-1304
A 194 Clement V Bertrand de Got	1305-1314
Templars arrested and suppressed, 1307-1312; Last Grand Master, Jacques de Molay, tortured & burned by Philip IV of France, 1314
moves to Avignon, 1309; lines of Popes reside at Avignon (A), Rome (R), and Pisa (P) during the Babylonian Captivity (1309-1377) and the Great Schism (1378-1417); 1311-1312 Council of Vienne
Sedê Vacantê	1314-1316
A 195 John XXII Jacques Duèse	1316-1334
R [Nicholas (V) Pietro Rainalducci]	1328-1330, d.1333
A 196 Benedict XII Jacques Fournier	1334-1342
A 197 Clement VI Pierre	1342-1352
A 198 Innocent VI Étienne Aubert	1352-1362
A 199 Urban V Guillaume de Grimoard	1362-1370
R 200 Gregory XI Pierre Roger de Beaufort	1370-1378
leaves Avignon, 1376; returns to Rome, 1377
R 201 Urban VI Bartolomeo Prignano	1378-1389
resides at Rome, Anti-Pope elected at Avignon; Great Schism
R 202 Boniface IX Pietro Tomacelli	1389-1404
R 203 Innocent VII Cosimo Gentile de' Migliorati	1404-1406
R 204 Gregory XII Angelo Correr	1406-1415 d.1417
1414-1418 Council of Constance, called by Emperor Sigismund, Papal interregnum 1415-1417, resolves Great Schism, but principle of Council is threat to Papal authority
Sedê Vacantê	1415-1417
205 Martin V Oddo Colonna	1417-1431
206 Eugene (Eugenius) IV Gabriele Condulmaro	1431-1447
1431-1445 Council of Basil; Council at Ferrara & Florence, 1439-1440, attended by John VIII Palaeologus
[Felix (V), Amadeus VIII of Savoy]	1439-1449, d.1451
207 Nicholas V Tommaso Parentucelli	1447-1455
Renaissance begins
208 Callistus/ Calixtus III Alfonso de Borja/Borgia	1455-1458
209 Pius II Enea Silvio Piccolomini	1458-1464
last piece of Romania, the fortress of Monemvasia, ceded by the Despot Thomas, 1461
210 Paul II Pietro Barbo	1464-1471
211 Sixtus IV Francesco della Rovere	1471-1484
212 Innocent VIII Giovanni Battista Cibò	1484-1492
213 Alexander VI Rodrigo de Borja y Borja/Borgia	1492-1503
214 Pius III Francesco Todeschini Piccolomini	1503
215 Julius II Giuliano della Rovere	1503-1513
recovers by combat all of Papal States, 1512-1517; Lateran Council V
216 Leo X Giovanni de' Medici	1513-1521
1517 Reformation begins
217 Hadrian VI Adrian Florensz Dedal	1522-1523
218 Clement VII Giulio de' Medici	1523-1534
1527 Sack of Rome by Imperial/Spanish army
219 Paul III Alessandro Farnese	1534-1549
1545-1563 Council of Trent 19th Ecumenical Council
220 Julius III Giovanni Maria Ciocchi del Monte	1550-1555
221 Marcellus II Marcello Cervini	1555
222 Paul IV Giampietro Carafa	1555-1559
223 Pius IV Giovanni Angelo Medici	1559-1565
224 St. Pius V Michele Ghislieri	1566-1572
225 Gregory XIII Ugo Boncompagni	1572-1585
5/15 October 1582, Gregorian Calendar instituted
226 Sixtus V Felice Peretti	1585-1590
227 Urban VII Giambattista Castagna	1590
228 Gregory XIV Niccolò Sfondrati	1590-1591
229 Innocent IX Giovanni Antonio Fachinetti	1591
230 Clement VIII Ippolito Aldobrandini	1592-1605
231 Leo XI Alessandro Ottaviano de'Medici	1605
232 Paul V Camillo Borghese	1605-1621
233 Gregory XV Alessandro Ludovisi	1621-1623
234 Urban VIII Maffeo Barberini	1623-1644
235 Innocent X Giambattista Pamfili	1644-1655
236 Alexander VII Fabio Chigi	1655-1667
237 Clement IX Giulio Rospigliosi	1667-1669
238 Clement X Emilio Altieri	1670-1676
239 Innocent XI Benedetto Odescalchi	1676-1689
240 Alexander VIII Petro Ottoboni	1689-1691
241 Innocent XII Antonio Pignatelli	1691-1700
242 Clement XI Giovanni Francesco Albani	1700-1721
Protests grant without Papal authority of the title "King in Prussia," 1701
243 Innocent XIII Michelangelo dei Conti	1721-1727
244 Benedict XIII Pietro Francesco Orsini	1724-1730
245 Clement XII Lorenzo Corsini	1730-1740
246 Benedict XIV Prospero Lorenzo Lambertini	1740-1758
247 Clement XIII Carlo della Torre Rezzonico	1758-1769
248 Clement XIV Lorenzo Giovanni Vicenzo Antonio Ganganelli	1769-1774
249 Pius VI Giovanni Angelo Braschi	1775-1799
250 Pius VII Luigi Barnabà Chiaramonte	1800-1823
Roman Republic, 1799; Concordat with Napoleon, 1801; Annexation by France, Napoleon excommunicated, Pope arrested, 1809-1814
251 Leo XII Annibale Sermattei della Genga	1823-1829
252 Pius VIII Francesco Saverio Castiglione	1829-1830
253 Gregory XVI Bartolomeo Alberto Cappellari	1831-1846
254 Pius IX Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti	1846-1878
loss of Romagna, 1859; loss of the Marches & Umbria, 1860; occupation of Rome by Italy, 1870; 1869-1870 Vatican I Council
255 Leo XIII Gioacchino Vincenzo Pecci	1878-1903
256 St. Pius X Giuseppe Melchiorre Sarto	1903-1914
257 Benedict XV Giacomo Della Chiesa	1914-1922
258 Pius XI Ambrogio Damiano Achille Ratti	1922-1939
Concordat with Mussolini, Independence of Vatican City, 1929
259 Pius XII Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli	1939-1958
260 John XXIII Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli	1958-1963
1962-1965 Vatican II Council
261 Paul VI Giovanni Battista Montini	1963-1978
262 John Paul I Albino Luciani	1978
263 John Paul II Karol Wojtyla	1978-2005
first Polish Pope
264 Benedict XVI Joseph Ratzinger	2005

The Papacy is one of the oldest institutions in the world, perhaps even the oldest. There are likely to be few neutral opinions about it. To Roman Catholics, the Pope may be the holiest man on earth, the heir and keeper of the deepest truths of religion. To others, the Papacy may only stand for ignorance and dogma, intolerance, torture, arrogance, and bigotry. Purely historical judgments, which cannot take into account religious truth or falsehood, may nevertheless leave a negative impression because of the factual nature of things like torture and intolerance. One would like, therefore, as a historian (or philosopher) to ask, "What good was the Papacy?"

There is one very good answer in that respect:  By claiming independent authority and resisting secular power, the Papacy paved the way for the later conception of the separation of Church and State. Not that the Church ever wanted to give up its authority over the conscience and morals of citizens, but it accustomed people to the idea that secular power was not the last word and that obedience to the same was not an unconditioned duty. Once the Church was divided by the Reformation, and Protestants found even their own sects multiplying, the easiest solution was, not only to keep secular authority separate, but to deny to churches any coercive function. Thus, while Catholic countries often still mix some religious authority into secular law, the separation of religion from the state, or the principle of liberty of conscience, is a far, far less secure proposition out of the Western world. When China prohibits an inoffensive religious sect, and various countries debate whether to institute Islâmic Law (or apply it in all its rigor), the long struggles between Popes and Emperors, or Popes and Kings, look positively remarkable.

As with many people who look good out of power, for their resistance, but then prove as bad, or worse, as their tormentors once they are in power themselves, our appreciation of the Papacy has its limits. The Popes always looked better resisting than ruling. This has peristed into recent times, when the Church was the focus of undeniable opposition to communism in Poland, but then, again, sought to introduce Catholic moral teachings into the law of post-communist Poland. The irony of this dynamic is palpable when communism itself came to power in the name of the workers but then often slaughtered workers to stay in power.

Thus, one might well say, "OK, it was a worthy role to distinguish and limit the power of secular governments, but since then the Church has been more famous for its intolerance, for the Inquisition, for its authoritarianism. What has it done for us, outside of the Warsaw Pact, lately?" Indeed, if a Mediaeval or Cold War historical role is the best we can do, then perhaps the demise of the Church is long overdue. At the same time, the Church is no longer running any Inquisitions, and priests and nuns have often become activists in trendy political causes -- unfortunately sometimes poisonous leftist causes, as in "Liberation Theology." However, that kind of thing may be of less value than the continued conservative moral teaching of the Church. If the Catholic Church is not going to stand for conservative morality, who is? The principle lesson of traditional morality is self-control. If the Church argues that abortion and birth control are not necessary (apart from its moral objections) for economic success, this is actually true and an argument that should be made. Those who are so imprudent as to find themselves with illegitimate children, even if their fortunes can be retrieved by abortions, may not be prudent in any other areas of life either, to a great loss of fortune which cannot so easily be remedied. The proposition that people should be protected, usually by the government, from any adverse consequences of their own actions is the most destructive moral principle of the modern age, when relativism and nihilism have become the self-evident truths of the intelligentsia. Although the Church may err in the direction of moralism, this is no worse, and probably overall better, than the opposite popular trivializations of morality and prudence. The legendary, fortress-like chastity of Catholic girls, although often ridiculed as unhealthy inhibition, now, especially in the environment of herpes and AIDS, proves to have been the wisest of practical virtues.

On the other hand, the moral standing of the Church now stands gravely challenged by scandals over priests who take advantage of their positions to sexually prey on children. In the most scurrilous of anti-Catholic rumor and libel, Catholics were required to provide children to priests for sexual purposes. However innocent of this, the Church put itself in a very false, immoral, and illegal position by often simply transfering priests accused of sexual crimes instead of turning them over to the police. Why the Church would be reluctant to respond appropriately is understandable, since it has been harder and harder, especially outside of Ireland and Poland, to get men to commit to a life of celibacy to become priests. The Church invests a great deal in the education and training of priests and is going to be reluctant to lose them. Also, the priesthood might unfortunately tend to attract men who might otherwise be uninterested in marriage, i.e. homosexuals and those sexually attracted to children. In principle, homosexuals are going to be in no worse position than heterosexual priests in that the Church has no objection to anyone being a homosexual, as long as they don't engage in homosexual sex. Since priests are expected to avoid any kind of sex, homosexual priests face temptations in much the same way as heterosexual priests. A priest tempted into homosexual sex may be committing a greater sin than a heterosexual priest, but at least it is not illegal. Child molesting is something else. While homosexual priests as such may not be the problem, conservatives sometimes think it is, since much of the abuse really isn't of children, but of teenage boys. Either way, however, these particular priests don't seem to be able to observe either their vows of celibacy, the Church's teachings on sexuality, or the laws about the age of consent.

A reasonable solution to all this, since the fundamental problem is the scarcity of parish priests, could be married priests. While priestly celibacy is founded on the text, Matthew 19:12, "and there are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. He who is able to receive this, let him receive it," it may be that the emphasis on celibacy in the Latin Church developed mainly to prevent priestly offices from becoming hereditary -- a grave danger in the Middle Ages, as seen recently also in Japan, where a married Buddhist clergy has resulted precisely in hereditary succession to Buddhist temples. This not likely to become a danger in the modern Catholic Church, however, and the Church would do well to adopt a somewhat more relaxed policy, as in the Greek Orthodox Church, where married priests are simply disqualified from advancing in the hierarchy.

The mythic beginning of the Papacy with St. Peter may not be quite as mythic as Protestants like to suppose. St. Peter's Basilica at the Vatican is built over a 1st century Christian cemetery. Rebuilt over time, ever since the first version built by Constantine, the altar turns out always to have been over a particular grave, with its own humble monument, of a man whose bones date from the correct era. This may or may not really be Peter, but the antiquity of bones and tomb rule out the kind of crude mediaeval fraud that the sceptic might suppose.

Since St. Peter's and the Papacy really are so old, the opposite temptation, from the one of priestly fictions, is that the Popes know far more about history than anyone suspects. One favorite notion, which may or may not have originated in the novel Another Roadside Attraction by Tom Robbins, is that the Vatican possesses the actual body of Jesus Christ. Since Christ is supposed to have risen from the dead and ascended to heaven, his body would be, to say the least, an embarrassment. But when one wonders whether these few bones are actually St. Peter, the intact mummy of Jesus seems rather less credible. Another conceit, apparently taken seriously by the 1999 movie Stigmata, is that the Vatican possesses texts of the Gospels, even in Aramaic (surviving Gospels are in Greek), which contradict various points of Catholic doctrine, like the existence of the Church. Stigmata, however, very much, perhaps inadvertently, overstates its case, since the sayings of Jesus it treasures as directed against the (not yet existing) Catholic Church could, at the time, have had no possible object other than the Temple of Herod in Jerusalem. The viewer of the movie, taking into account the historical context in which Jesus spoke, might therefore take it as an anti-Semitic rather than just an anti-Catholic screed.

The antiquity of the Papacy is perhaps often forgotten when it comes to the monuments of Rome. The mediaeval Popes did not live in the Vatican, but in the Lateran Palace, which had been seized from its private owners by, of all people, the Emperor Nero. Constantine then donated it to the Bishop of Rome and built adjacent to it the church of San Giovanni in Laterno, which has remained ever since the actual episcopal church of Rome (not St. Peter's). Most of the mediaeval Church councils in Rome are thus "Lateran" Councils, held at the Pope's residence (as the last two Councils have been "Vatican" Councils). Later, while the Popes were in Avignon, the Palace burned twice, in 1307 and 1361. Although the Palace was rebuilt, when the Popes returned, they never lived there again, settling at Santa Maria in Trastevere, then at Santa Maria Maggiore (also ancient; built in 432), and finally, as we all know, at the Vatican. What was left of the ancient Lateran Palace was removed by Sixtus V, who then built the smaller existing building.

Anti-Popes are shown in brackets. Popes and Anti-Popes in the Great Schism at Avignon are shown with backgrounds in purple. Anti-Popes at Pisa are on a background in green. Sedê Vacantê is "with the Seat Vacant."

The Popes may be viewed in frames in conjunction with Roman-Romanian-Byzantine Emperors and Frankish-German-French-Austrian Emperors with this link. In a screen 640 pixels wide, the formatting suffers considerable distortions. In a wider screen, the window should be enlarged or maximized. To exit the frames, links from the "Popes" window must be used.

Although the Pope had been the de facto governor of Rome for a few years, the Donation of Pepin in 754 begins the formal history of the Papacy as a territorial power. This would last until 1870, giving the Papal States a run of 1116 years. The original terms of the grant were for the "Exarchate of Ravenna," i.e. the Roman Imperial territory that was preserved across central Italy after the invasion of Lombards in 568. The most important parts of this were, of course, Rome itself and the area of Romagna around Ravenna in the north, with a narrow salient connecting them.

The ability of the Popes to control the outlying territories, or even Rome itself, was, however, very uneven. Rome was often under the control of turbulent local aristocrats, and one reason for the Papal relocation to Avignon was to escape them. After the return of the Popes to Rome, it was some time before the territorial fortunes could be restored. The son of Alexander VI, Cesare Borgia, then conquered Romagna. This was for his own benefit; but the deaths of him and his father (who was perhaps trying to poison someone else) and the accession of the warrior Pope Julius II resulted in its being secured for the Papacy. Avignon was still a Papal possession, and there were some outlying holdings in Italy, like Benevento. This arrangement was then fairly stable until the French Revolution, when Avignon was lost, the Papal States temporarily annexed, and the Pope himself eventually imprisoned by Napoleon. The restorations of 1815 returned the Papal Italian territories, until the period of the unification of Italy, 1859-1870. This formally ended the political independence of the Papacy until the Concordat with Mussolini in 1929 recognized the sovereignty of the Vatican City.

The Donation of Pepin and the subsequent crowning of Charlemagne as Roman Emperor gave the Popes ideas. A document was manufactured, the "Donation of Constantine," whereby secular authority over the entire Western Roman Empire had been given to the Pope by Constantine the Great. This became the basis of Mediaeval Papal claims of authority over all secular rulers in Francia. Papal claims were occasionally enforced with some success, against the Emperors and even against the Kings of France and England; but they came to a bad end when Boniface VIII had to face the ruthlessness of King Philip IV of France. The subsequent Babylonian Captivity and Great Schism, not to mention the Reformation and the exposure of the Donation of Constantine as a forgery, put the Papacy at such disadvantages that it never again had as much leverage as before over secular rulers.

The Frankish Kingdom as the Roman Empire petered out (as it were) after a while, and the Pope granted the Imperial Crown for a few years to local Kings of Italy. This also lapsed. The institution got revived, for the rest of the Middle Ages, when the successful German King Otto I descended on Italy. This began a long struggle between the German Emperors and the Popes for control of Italy and control of the Church in Germany. The successes of the Popes crippled the authority of the German Throne, and ensured that Germany and Italy would enter the Modern period fragmented and anarchic. The political consequences even in the 20th century were severe, as the political immaturity of Germany and Italy rendered them vulnerable to ideologies like Fascism and Naziism. Italy remained tempted by Communism until its fall in 1989/91. The war and mass murder effected by the former temptations echo in the terrorism practiced by the die-hard believers of the latter, even after the Fall of Communism.

One sees differing numberings of the Popes. Here I have John Paul II as the 263rd Pope. At the time of his death, I began seeing him referred to as the 264th, and the Catholic Encyclopedia gives him as the 265th. Part of this uncertainty is that there may be disagreement about which Popes are legitimate. Thus, in this list, Christopher (903) and Benedict X (1058) were formerly counted as Popes, but they are not on the Catholic Encyclopedia list and are characterized as Anti-Popes by The Oxford Dictionary of Popes. On the other hand, Leo VIII (963) and Sylvester III (1045) are now on the Catholic Encyclopedia list but were formerly, at least by some, considered Anti-Popes.

As it happens, if we switch off between these Popes and Anti-Popes, it still leaves the count the same. So where does the difference come from between the 363 Popes here and the 365 in the Catholic Encyclopedia? Well, the 365 number in the Encyclopedia list comes from numbering Benedict IX (1032) three times, as the 146th, 148th, and 151st Pope. He was a layman elected by the power of his family, the Counts of Tusculum, following his uncles Benedict VIII (1012) and John XIX (1024). Opposition to his family, to his own secular ways, and by the Emperor, resulted in him being deposed three times, first in favor of Sylvester III (1045), then second in favor of Gregory VI (1045). Gregory, Sylvester, and Benedict were all pushed aside by the Emperor Henry III, who installed Clement II (1046). After Clement's death, Benedict finally returned again, only to be deposed a third time in 1048 by Boniface of Tuscany, who installed the Emperor's candidate, Damasus II (1048).

It is because of this mess that Benedict, uniquely, like President Grover Cleveland, can be numbered with non-consecutive "terms" as Pope. I am not sure this makes as much sense for Popes as for Presidents, however. We are not really dealing with terms of office. If we ask "How many popes?" we want to know the number of individuals. So I have dispensed with the extra numberings. Reckoning them into the count, if anyone really wants to do that, does make John Paul II the 265th Pope (given the other judgments about Popes and Anti-Popes).

The count of John Paul II as 264th may come from using the three reigns for Benedict IX but not counting Stephen II (752), who died after reigning for only three days. Since he was properly elected but was never consecrated, judgment has wavered about whether to count him as a proper Pope. This results in different numberings seen for subsequent Stephens. Here, however, I have included the original Stephen II as a true Pope. Even if we discount him, however, I think it is very wrong to renumber the subsequent Stephens. This can create tremendous confusion when dealing with older (mainly pre-1961) histories, which will not have the renumbering. Stephen III was a Pope of great historical significance, and it should be possible to refer to him, or read about him, without confusion. There are several cases where Popes now considered Anti-Popes nevertheless retain their place in the sequence of names. Thus, Boniface VII (974), John XVI (997), Benedict X (1058), and Alexander V (1409) are now all Anti-Popes who nevertheless are figured in the numbering of subsequent Popes of their name. Since Stephen II had a legitimate election, and has never been considered an Anti-Pope by anyone, it is especially inappropiate to create confusion with anyone after him.

The only other Papal name where we get this kind of confusing renumbering is with "Felix." Felix II (355) was the early Anti-Pope with the name, but the subsequent Felixes, III (or II, 483) and IV (or III, 526), are early and not of great historical significance -- so not much confusion arises. However, the Anti-Pope Felix V (1439), chosen by the Council of Basle, and the last Anti-Pope, is of rather more importance, and appears to always be numbered with the Anti-Pope Felix II in the sequence.

There actually is no Pope John XX. When John XXI (1276) became Pope, there was some confusion about the numbering of the earlier Johns. Since John XXI styled himself the "XXI," this number has been allowed to stand, even when the confusion has been cleared up. How much more appropriate, then to retain even a discounted Stephen II.

Although the Church of the Pope is called by one and all the "Holy Roman Catholic and Apostolic Church" (Sancta Romana Catholica et Apostolica Ecclesia), and this is contrasted, not just with Protestant churches, but with the Orthodox Churches of the East, Greek, Coptic, Syriac, Armenian, Bulgarian, Russian, Romanian, Serbian, etc., this has been no more than a very clever usurpation. The "Holy Roman Catholic and Apostolic Church" was the Universal (katholikos) Church of the Roman Empire. The Pope was not the ruler of that Church, but one of the Ecumenical Patriarchs, along with the Patriarchs of Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantinople. The Pope was allowed to be primus inter pares, "first among equals," but that was it. Governance of the Church was also shared with the Emperor, the "Equal of the Apostles," who had the authority to call Church Councils; and, after 476, that meant only the Emperor in Constantinople -- although, as it happened, only that Emperor had ever called Councils. After various disputes, the Latin and Greek Churches finally broke in 1054. Each thus claimed to be the proper "Holy Roman Catholic and Apostolic Church," but over time the Papal use of the terminology seems curiously to have been conceded by the East. "Eastern Orthodox" is not particularly insulting, but it is a surrender. Even the expression "Greek Catholic" is used for the Roman Catholic counter-church that was created to lure the Greek Orthodox into allegiance to Rome.

The Schism between Greek and Latin Churches came at a very bad time for the Greeks. Defeat by the Turks and the loss of Asia Minor deprived Romania of more than half its territory. This was a catastrophe, and actually the Empire never recovered. The Emperor Alexius Comnenus appealed to the West for help. He had no idea what this would set off. Pope Urban II got the idea to call for a "Crusade," a great Christian army, not just to help the Greeks, but to go on and reconquer Jerusalem. This is what happened. The First Crusade defeated the Turks badly enough that Romania was able to recover considerable territory, but then it went on and obtained the great goal of Jerusalem, which had been in Islâmic hands for 463 years.

Later Crusades were the result of setbacks, like the fall of Edessa in 1144 and, much worse, the loss of Jerusalem in 1187. The Popes began to labor constantly to put together forces that could recover the Christian position in Outremer. The Third Crusade was the most powerful and direct, led by the heroic Richard the Lionheart of England, but it fell short. Much, much worse was the Fourth Crusade, which was redirected by the Doge of Venice, Enrico Dandolo, to the purposes of Venice. Pope Innocent III first had to excommunicate everyone for the use of the army in Dalmatia, and then the Venetians took it, not to Palestine, but to Constantinople. This could be seen as undoing the Schism between the Chruches, since now there was a Latin Emperor and Latin Patriarch in Romania, but it didn't accomplish the real purpose. Nor did it last long. Innocent also sanctioned the appalling Albigensian Crusade which precipitated massacre and cultural devestation in the South of France. Nevertheless, he also accepted the legitimancy of the new mendicant preachers, like the charismatic St. Francis of Assisi (1181-1226) and St. Dominic (1170-1221), the founders of the Franciscan and Dominican Orders.

Later Popes had to contend with an excommunicated Emperor, Frederick II, regaining Jerusalem by negotiation (Fifth Crusade), and then with St. Louis of France getting himself captured in Egypt (Sixth Crusade) and then dying in Tunisia (Seventh Crusade). That was about it.

While the last glimmers of the Holy Land were fading, the self-importance of the Papacy was expanding. Boniface VIII went the furtherest with this. The Popes were essentially going to be rulers of the world, deposing and enthroning rulers as they wished. These were naive and dangerous pretentions given some of the rulers that the Pope would have to deal with. The Emperor Henry IV might have been willing to stand in the snow as a penitant, but King Philip IV of France sent one of his agents, Nogaret, to do something about the Pope. With a gang of mercenaries, Nogaret seized Boniface in his summer palace at Anagni, holding him hostage and sacking the place. By one account, they intented to take him back to France for trial but then were driven off, and Boniface rescued, by the local citizens. On another account, they thought it impractical to move Boniface and simply left him without further harm. But they had broken his spirit, and he died weeks later.

In short order, a French Pope was elected, Clement V, who may actually have meant well but who ended up as a dupe and tool of Philip. Clement settled at Avignon, where the Papal Court then resided until 1377 -- later called the "Babylonian Captivity" of the Papacy. Clement was helpless against Philip's schemes, like the destruction of the Templars, even though the Crusading Order was under the direct authority of the Pope and was theoretically immune to French sovereignty. That didn't help them, and Philip ended up burning the Grand Master, without so much as notifying Clement beforehand. Subsequently, all of Europe saw the Papacy as an instrument of French policy.

Finally, the Babylonian Captivity was ended when a French Pope, Gregory XI, returned to Rome, but not without great trouble wading in to Italian politics.

Popes at Avignon during Great Schism
A [Clement (VII) Robert of Geneva]	1378-1394
A [Benedict (XIII) Petro de Luna]	1394-1417 d.1423
1414-1418 Council of Constance, called by Emperor Sigismund, Papal interregnum 1415-1417
A [Clement (VIII) Gil Sanchez Muñoz]	1423-1429, d.1446
A [Benedict (XIV) Bernard Garnier]	1425-? in Armagnac

When he died a new Pope was elected in Rome, but another was soon also elected at Avignon. This resulted in two Papacies, the "Great Schism," and the states of Francia lined up on one side or another. As with the Northern Emperors in Japan, the Popes at Avignon during the Schism are now considered Anti-Popes and not numbered in the succession.

This awkward and mortifying division of Catholic Christendom eventually moved many to find a solution.

1409 Council of Pisa, adds third Pope at Pisa
P [Alexander V Pietro Philarghi]	1409-1410
P [John (XXIII) Baldassare Cossa]	1410-1415 d.1419

A Council at Pisa in 1409 elected a new Pope, but then the two old ones refused to resign. So the Great Schism now divided Europe in three, rather than just two. Even worse, the second Pope at Pisa, John XXIII, behaved so disgracefully that no legitimacy was left for the Pisa line, and no Pope would again take the name "John" for five hundred years, until 1958 -- then we get another John XXIII because the first was considered an anti-Pope and his number discounted.

Finally, a General Church Council was called at Constance by the Emperor Sigismund. All three Popes were asked to resign. They did, and the Schism was resolved with the election of a new Pope, Martin V. Although Benedict XIII at Avignon resigned, two more "Avignon" Popes were elected, though they were not in possession of the Papal city. The principle that Church Councils might be called by the Emperor and rule on matters of Church doctrine and discipline, although affirmed by Constance, was soon repudiated by Martin. The next Emperor who wanted to call a Council, and who had the power to do so, Charles V, nevertheless deferred to the claims of the Papacy (even though his army sacked Rome in 1527, driving out the hostile Clement VII).

No sooner was the Papacy out of all this trouble, however, that it got into new problems. The Popes became wealthy Renaissance Princes. Alexander VI Borgia was one of the most infamous Popes ever, with rumors of incest as well as murder dogging him. He produced multiple illegitimate children, like Cesare and Lucretia Borgia, and was so busy poisoning his enemies that he seems to have accidentally poisoned himself and Cesare! This did not look good to the morally earnest.

The following tables contain some genealogy of two families of Renaissance Popes, the Borgias and the della Roveres. More della Rovere genealogy is given under the rulers of Urbino. Popes from a similiar family, the Medici, are featured in the genealogy of the Medici given with the rulers of Tuscany. Originally Spanish (Borja), Alexander VI's descendants through his son Juan returned to Spain and multiplied.

Leo X, the first of the Medici Popes, under whom the Protestant Reformation began, is supposed to have said, "God has given us the Papacy, so we might as well enjoy it." He dismissed Martin Luther as "some drunken German," but Luther's movement not only shook Francia, it shattered it. A division something like the Great Schism happened again, but this time is not was not over who would be Pope, but whether there would be a Pope at all.

The political divisions of the Reformation were only settled by war. The Dutch revolted against Spain (1568), and as the Spanish kept trying to defeat them, the Emperor moved to suppress heresy in Bohemia (1618). After Imperial forces secured Bohemia and advanced in Germany, France began to subsidize opposition. This brought Sweden into the war; and after Swedish fortunes faded, France, a Catholic state, entered the war against the Catholic side. Spanish power was permanently broken, and the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 secured Dutch (and Swiss) independence and the Protestant states in Germany. The Pope lost even theoretical and spiritual authority over most of Northern Europe.

If we ever wanted to know what a Counter-Reformation Pope was like, all we need is the portrait of Innocent X (1644-1655) by Velázquez (from 1649/50). This is often regarded as Velázquez' greatest portrait, and it is perhaps one the greatest in all history -- and the subject of more than one disturbing interpretation by the artist Francis Bacon (1909-1992). Click on image for larger popup.

By the 19th century, Popes were spending much of their energy just trying to maintain their rule over Rome and the Papal States. They were ultimately unsuccessful. A Concordat with Napoleon (1801) meant that the Corsican took a crown from the hands of Pius VII to crown himself Emperor. Later, Napoleon annexed Rome and arrested the Pope for excommunicating him. A few years later, after riding out the troubles of 1848, Napoleon III came to the rescue of the Papacy with French troops who prevented the absorption of Rome into the new Kingdom of Italy. When French troops were withdrawn to fight Prussia in 1870, the Italians rolled into Rome, made it the capital of Italy, and the Pope removed himself to sulk in the Vatican (and proclaim Papal Infallibility at the Vatican I Council). This was the end of the 1116 year history of the Papal States. Pope Pius XI finally settled for a Concordat with Mussolini (1929) that gave him sovereignty over the Vatican City. This left him with nothing to do but worry about religion and morality, which the Popes have largely confined themselves to since -- as most Catholics probably figure that they should. The Pope's Swiss Guard, still in 15th Century costume (at least on ceremonial occasions), remains to remind us of the day when the Pope had armies.

Detailed histories of the Papacy are readily available. The Oxford Dictionary of Popes, by J.N.D. Kelley [Oxford, 1986, 1988], has good discussion of all Popes individually. Chronicle of the Popes, by P.G. Maxwell-Stuart [Thames and Hudson, 1997], sometimes doesn't have as much on individual Popes but supplements this with extensive illustrations and maps, like other books in the Thames and Hudson "Chronicle" series. The dates here are now taken out of the Oxford Dictionary.

In much recent writing, Pope Pius XII has been accused of being little better than a Nazi collaborator during World War II -- "Hitler's Pope," in the title of one book. There is one fact that all by itself refutes such charges. When the Germans occupied Rome after the surrender of Italy in 1943 and began rounding up Jews, no less than three thousand Jews found refuge at the Pope's summer residence, Castel Gandolfo (originally built, ironically, by the Roman Emperor Domitian). The Pope's own private apartments became an obstetrics ward. Critics of Pius generally ignore this case, or lamely and incredibly argue that this was done without the Pope's knowledge. That would have been, to say the least, impossible. But inferences are not necessary; the testimony and the evidence is abundant that Papal instructions to all were to rescue Jews. For instance, Tibor Branaski, honored by Israel as a "righteous gentile" for helping Jews escape Hungary, testifies that he worked with the Papal Nuncio, Angelo Rotta, who showed him letters from Pius with such instructions. Similarly, Angelo Roncalli, the future John XXIII, who had a Papal diplomatic post in Istanbul during the War, supplied immigration and transit papers to Hungarian and Slovakian Jews. In 1957, Israel thanked Roncalli, still a Cardinal, for what he had done. But Roncalli refused to take credit:  "I referred to the Holy See and afterwards I simply carried out the pope's orders." Similarly, in 1955, an Israeli deligation asked Giovanni Montini, the future Pope Paul VI, if he would accept an award for what he had done to rescue Jews. Montini declined, again referring to his instructions from the Pope, and affirming that he had simply done his duty. One result of the Church's efforts was that 80% of Roman Jews and 85% of Italian Jews were saved from the Nazis. But to the "Hitler's Pope" crowd, this was apparently in spite of Papal indifference or even collaboration. This is hardly believable. In truth, Pius never approved of the Nazis, often spoke out against them, and never had any friendly dealings with them. The implication of the "Hitler's Pope" thesis, that Pius would have met with or had some understanding with Hitler, is all false. Indeed, the attacks sink so low that a photograph is used of Eugenio Pacelli, the future Pius XII, leaving a building guarded by German soldiers, with the implication that this was from a meeting with Hitler. In fact, it was Pacelli, who was a Papal diplomat in Germany, leaving a reception in 1928 for the German President, Paul von Hindenberg. The soldiers were those of the Weimar Republic.

In Mediaeval Europe, as it happens, one place that Jews could always be sure of a secure reception was in Rome. As early as 1247, for instance, a Papal Bull refuted with learned detail the "blood libel" charge against Jews, that they mixed the blood of Christian children with Passover matzos. This refutation was confirmed by another Bull in 1540. Meanwhile, Jews expelled from Spain in 1492 could find refuge in Rome, where the contemporary Pope, the notorious Alexander VI, had a Jewish personal physician. When the Emperor Maximilian I was about to order that the Talmud be banned, and burned, in Germany for reputed blasphemies against Jesus, Pope Leo X responded by ordering the entire Talmud published at Rome. These are the sorts of things that those with an animus for Catholicism or the Papacy don't seem to notice.

On the other hand, Pius cannot be entirely excused from a more complacent attitude towards, if not Nazis, then Fascists in general. In 1941 he granted an audience to Ante Pavelic, who, after exile in Italy, returned home to head the Nazi puppet state of Croatia -- for a while the state even had a figurehead King from the Italian royal family. Pavelic conducted round ups and massacres against Serbs, Jews, Gypsies, and Communists. Nevertheless, after the War the Church apparently sheltered him in Italy before he fled to South America and found service with Juan Peron. This sort of thing, of course, is not to the credit of the Church or the Pope. Indeed, if Pius never had any use for the Nazis, the Church had much less of a problem with Mussolini's Fascism, or that of Franco in Spain (where Pavelic died in 1959) or Salazar in Portugal. That a Fascist like Franco could actually shelter Jews fleeing from Vichi France means that Fascism as such was not necessarily anti-Semitic, but it is troubling that conservatives or nationalists of the time, like Mircea Eliade, nevertheless became attracted to regimes like those of Mussolini or Franco. Then, as now, collectivist and statist politics were all too appealing, both to left and right, and liberal ideals disparaged. Indeed, few would confuse the traditional Papacy with a source of liberal policies or exhortations.

Nevertheless, despite a less than perfect record of dealing with Fascists, the Church was already on record as opposing the fundamentals of Fascism. Thus, in 1931 (just two years after the Concordat of 1929), Pope Pius XI had issued an encyclical, Non abbiamo bisogno, that condemned Fascism for its "statolatry," a charge on target for far too much of 20th century politics, but certainly especially apt for fascism and communism. The Fascists were accused of trying "to monopolize completely the young, from their tenderest years up to manhood and womanhood, for the exlcusive advantage of a party and of a regime based on an ideology which clearly resolves iself into a true, a real pagan worship of the State." This not only bespeaks the better angels of the Papal nature but is a caution for continuing political traditions, for long under the influence of Hegel, that denigrate the individual and exalt the reality of state and government. Critics of Catholicism should be careful of the statist log in their own eye before practicing their ophthamology on the Papacy.

The name "John," shunned for centuries, has now been born by three of the last four Popes. This was all due to the saintliness and magnanimity of John XXIII. John Paul I wished to honor John and his successor, Paul VI, and then John Paul II wished to honor all three of them. John Paul I's brief reign (little more than a month) moved the Cardinals to elect a relatively young and vigorous Pope. John Paul II, indeed, reigned into the new Millennium. He was the first non-Italian Pope in centuries, and the first Slavic and Polish Pope ever. It was a historic reign indeed, with John Paul playing a large part in the Fall of Communism, but in the 90's he grew gravely frail and ill. Rumors of the gravity of his condition occasionally surfaced. Some even suggested that he abdicate, but this is something that historically Popes have never done (of their own will). Now, on 2 April 2005, John Paul has died. Just the previous Sunday, on Easter, he appeared at his window and blessed the crowd, but he was unable to speak. An infection led to a brief critical illness. After what may have been the largest funeral in history, on April 8th, a historic Papal election will soon take place, the first in a quarter of a century.

Although Catholicism has declined in much of the secular West, John Paul himself made the Papacy a presence and a player in modern religion, culture, and politics. In the days of Paul VI, this hardly seemed possible. John Paul was able to accomplish it all through a combination of qualities that may be difficult to repeat. Personally, he was outgoing and appealing, giving a personal touch to an office that can easily swallow a Pope in pompous ritual and the trappings of Mediaeval monarchy. John Paul believed in the pastoral vocation of the Pope, and he travelled the world, meeting millions, to carry this out. All the same, he would not compromise Catholic doctrine just to be in tune with modernity. This turned many away from the Faith, even while it earned the respect, even of some of them, for his conviction and principles. Catholicism was not going to be some wimpy, pop, feel-good religion. But on the stage of history, looming over all of this, was John Paul's place as the de facto sovereign of Poland and the leader of the fight against Communism. In the dark days of the 80's, when the leaders of Solidarity had been arrested and dissent suppressed, the Poles knew that their Saviors, John Paul and Ronald Reagan, lived. And their Saviors delivered them. Josef Stalin had asked once how many divisions the Pope had. This was a joke. Now, burning in Hell, Stalin knows that the joke is on him.

Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, the first German Pope in many centuries, has now been elected as Benedict XVI. Ratzinger is older, a close supporter of John Paul II, and very much more a Vatican insider, indeed a bureaucrat, than John Paul. Ratzinger was one of only two Cardinals who had elected John Paul himself and was still young enough to vote this time. His may be a kind of transition Papacy, as John XXIII's was expected to be. But one never knows, as with John XXIII himself. More dramatic might have been the election of a Latin American, African, or, I don't know, an Irish Pope. Perhaps that comes next.

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Copyright (c) 1998, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D. All Rights Reserved

Among the oldest Bishoprics, and Archbishoprics, in Germany, Mainz, Trier, and Cologne were all Roman cities -- their Latin names are given below -- which became Ecclesiastical States and then the Ecclesiasitical Electors of the Holy Roman Empire. Their status as Electors was confirmed in the Golden Bull of the Emperor Charles IV in 1356. The three Archbishops all participated in the subsequent crowning of a new Emperor, as seen in the 1764 coronation of Joseph II at right, though they were really crowning him King of the Romans (originally King of the Eastern Franks). Only the Pope could crown the King as the actual Emperor of the Romans.

The secular power of the Archbishops was brought to an end by Napoleon in 1803. The cities themselves ended up within the borders of Napoleonic France. The last Elector of Mainz, Karl Theodor, was first transfered as a secular Elector to Regensburg and then, after Napoleon abolished the Empire (1806), to Frankfurt as a Grand Duke -- until Napoleon was defeated and Frankfurt became a Free City. Mainz, Trier, and Cologne were not restored to pre-Napoleonic Ecclesiastical rule or independence.

The bishoprics begin with a curious chapter in Church history. The first Bishop and then Archbishop of Mainz on the list was an English (or Anglo-Saxon, if you like) missionary, Wynfrith, later Boniface, of Crediton. In 718, at the age of about 43, Boniface left England to evangelize among the Germans. He coordinates his efforts by visiting the Pope three times and consulting with the powerful Carolingian Mayors of the Palace of Merovingian Francia, principally Charles Martel but then also Pepin the Short, who became King shortly before Boniface's death. Boniface brought a number of other English missionaries with him, including the nun St. Walburga who became an abbess in Germany, and who suffered the curious fate of having Walpurgisnacht, a sort of Springtime Halloween on April 30, grow up around her memory. This is discussed elsewhere. Since the letter "w" as used in modern German and Dutch was borrowed from English, I wonder if this may have been introduced by Boniface himself. However, written German isn't attested until, I think, the 9th century; so Boniface may be a bit early.

Bishops, Archbishops, Electors
Mainz, Moguntiacum		Trier, Augusta Treverorum		Cologne, Colonia Agrippina
Bonifatius, Wynfrith or Boniface of Crediton	Bishop, 722-732
	Archbishop, 732-754
Lullus	Bishop, 754-781
	Archbishop, 782-786
Riculf	787-813	Richbold	Archbishop, c.791-804	Hildebald	Bishop, 787-794
		Waso	804-809		Archbishop, 795-818
		Amalharius	809-814
Haistulf	813-826	Hetti	814-847	Hadebald	819-841?
Otgar	826-847
Hrabanus Maurus	847-856	Dietgald	847-863, d.868	Gunther	850-864, d.871
Charles of Aquitaine	856-863
Ludbert	863-889	Bertulf	869-883	Willibert	870-888
Sunderold	889-891	Ratbod	883-915	Hermann I	889-924
Hatto I	891-913
Heriger	913-927	Ruotbert	931-956
Hildebert	927-937			Wikfried	924-953
Friedrich	937-954
Wilhelm	954-968	Heinrich I	956-964	Brun I	953-965
Hatto II	968-970	Dietrich I	965-977	Folkmar	966-969
Rupert	970-975			Gero	969-976
Willigis	975-1011	Egbert	977-993	Warin	976-985
		Liudolf	994-1008	Everger	985-999
Erkenbald	1011-1021	Megingaud	1008-1015	Heribert	999-1021
Aribo	1021-1031	Poppo	1016-1047	Pilgrim	1021-1036
Bardo	1031-1051			Hermann II	1036-1056
Luitpold	1051-1059	Eberhard	1047-1066	Anno II	1056-1075
Siegfried of Eppenstein	1060-1084	Kuno I	1066
		Udo of Nellenburg	1066-1078	Hildolf	1076-1078
Wezelin	1084-1088	Egilbert	1079-1101	Sigewin	1079-1089
Ruthard	1089-1109			Hermann III of Hochstaden	1089-1099
Adalbert I of Saarbrücken	1110-1137	Bruno of Brettheim	1102-1124	Friedrich I of Schwarzenberg	1100-1131
		Gottfried	1124-1127, d.1128
		Meginher	1127-1130	Brun/Bruno II of Berg	1131-1137
Adalbert II of Saarbrücken	1138-1141	Alberto of Montreuil	1131-1152	Hugo of Sponheim	1137
Markulf	1141-1142			Arnold I	1138-1151
Heinrich I	1142-1153
Arnold of Seelenhofen	1153-1160	Hillin of Fallemaigne	1152-1169	Arnold II of Wied	1151-1156
Konrad I of Wittelsbach	1161-1165, 1183-1200	Arnold I	1169-1183	Friedrich II of Altena	1156-1158
				Rainald of Dassel	1159-1167
				Philipp of Heinsberg	1167-1191
Christian I of Buch	1165-1183	Johann I	1190-1212	Brun III of Berg	1191-1193, d.1196/1200
Siegfried II of Eppenstein	1200-1230	Dietrich II of Weid	1212-1242	Adolf I of Altena	1193-1205, 1212-1216, d.1220
				Brun IV of Sayn	1205-1208
				Dietrich I of Hengeberg	1208-1212, d.1224?
				Engelbert I the Holy of Berg	1216-1225
Siegfried III of Eppenstein	1230-1249	Arnold II of Isenburg	Elector, 1242-1259	Heinrich I of Molenark	1225-1238
Christian II of Weisenau	1249-1251, d.1253			Konrad of Hochstaden	Elector, 1238-1261
Gerhard I Wildgraf	Elector, 1251-1259
Werner of Eppenstein	1259-1284	Heinrich II	1260-1286	Engelbert II of Falkenberg	1261-1274
Heinrich II	1286-1288	Boemund of Warnesberg	1289-1299	Siegfried of Westerburg	1275-1297
Gerhard II of Eppenstein	1289-1305	Dieter of Nassau	1300-1307	Wikbold of Holte	1297-1304
Peter of Aspelt	1306-1320	Balduin of Luxemburg	1307-1354	Heinrich II of Virneburg	1306-1332
Matthias of Bucheck	1321-1328
Heinrich III of Virneburg	1328-1346, d.1353			Walram of Jülich	1332-1349
Gerlach of Nassau	1346-1371	Boemund of Saarbrücken	1354-1362, d.1367	Wilhelm	1349-1362
Golden Bull, 1356
Johann I of Luxemburg	1371-1373	Kuno II of Falkenstein	1362-1388	Adolf II of Mark	1363-1364
Ludwig of Meißen	1374-1381, 1382			Engelbert III of Mark	1364-1369
Adolf I of Nassau	1381-1390			Friedrich III of Saarwerden	1370-1414
Konrad II of Weinsberg	1391-1396	Werner of Falkenstein	1388-1418
Johann II of Nassau	1397-1419
Konrad III, Wild- and Rheingraf of Daun	1419-1434	Otto of Ziegenhain	1418-1430	Dietrich II of Moers	1414-1463
Dietrich of Erbach	1434-1459	Ulrich of Manderscheid	1430-1436
		Hrabanus of Helmstadt	1436-1439
		Jakob I of Sirk	1439-1456
Dieter of Isenburg	1459-1461, 1475-1482	Johann II of Baden	1456-1503	Ruprecht of the Palatine	1463-1480
Adolf II of Nassau	1461-1475
Albrecht I of Saxony	1482-1484
Bertold of Henneberg- Römhold	1484-1504			Hermann IV of Hesse	1480-1508
Jakob of Liebenstein	1504-1508	Jakob II of Baden	1503-1511	Philipp of Daun-Oberstein	1508-1515
Uriel of Gemmingen	1508-1514
Albrecht II of Brandenburg	1514-1545	Richard of Greiffenklau	1511-1531	Hermann V of Wied	1515-1547, d.1552
		Johann III of Metzenhausen	1531-1540
		Johann IV Ludwig of Hagen	1540-1547
Sebastian of Heusenstamm	1545-1555	Johann V of Isenburg	1547-1556	Adolf III of Schauenburg	1546-1556
Daniel Brendel of Homburg	1555-1582	Johann VI of Leyen	1556-1567	Anton of Schauenburg	1556-1558
				Johann Gebhard I of Mansfeld	1558-1562
				Friedrich IV of Wied	1562-1567, d.1568
				Salentin of Isenburg	1567-1577, d.1610
		Jabob III of Eltz	1567-1581	Gebhard II Truschseß of Waldburg	1577-1583, d.1601
Wolfgang of Dalberg	1582-1601	Johann VII of Schönenberg	1581-1599	Ernst of Bavaria	1583-1612
Johann Adam of Bicken	1601-1604	Lothar of Metternich	1599-1623
Johann Schweickart of Cronberg	1604-1626			Ferdinand of Bavaria	1612-1650
Georg Friedrich of Greiffenklau	1626-1629	Philipp Christoph of Soetern	1623-1652
Anselm Kasimir Wamboldt	1629-1647
Johann Phlipp of Schönborn	1647-1673	Karl Kaspar of Leyen	1652-1676	Max Heinrich of Bavaria	1650-1688
Lothar Friedrich of Metternich	1673-1675
Damian of Leyen	1675-1678	Johann VIII Hugo of Orsbeck	1676-1711
Karl Heinrich of Metternich	1679
Anselm Franz of Ingelheim	1679-1695			Joseph Clemens of Bavaria	1688-1723
Lothar Franz of Schönborn	1695-1729	Karl Joseph of Lorraine	1711-1715
		Franz Ludwig of Neuburg on Rhein	1716-1729, d.1732
Franz Ludwig of Neuburg on Rhein	1729-1732	Franz Georg on Schönborn	1729-1756	Clemens August of Bavaria	1723-1761
Philipp Karl of Eltz	1732-1743
Johann Friedrich Karl of Ostein	1743-1763	Johann IX Philipp of Walderdorf	1756-1768
Emmerich Josef of Breidbach	1763-1774	Klemens Wenzeslaus of Saxony	1768-1802, d.1812	Maximilian Friedrich of Köngiseck- Rothenfels	1761-1784
Friedrich Karl Josef of Erthal	1774-1802			Max Franz of Austria	1784-1801
Karl Theodor of Dalberg	1802-1803	Secularized, 1803		Secularized, 1803
	Secularized, 1803
	Regensburg, 1803-1810
	Grand Duke of Frankfurt, 1810-1813, d.1817
Joseph Ludwig Colmar	Bishop, 1802-1818	Charles Mannay	Bishop, 1802-1816
Joseph Vitus Burg	1829-1833	Josef von Hommer	1824-1836	Ferdinand August von Spiegel	Archbishop, 1824-1835
Johann Jakob Humann	1833-1834	Vacant
Petrus Leopold Kaiser	1834-1848	Wilhelm Arnoldi	1842-1864	Clemens August II Droste zu Fischering	1835-1845
Wilhelm Emmanuel Freiherr von Ketteler	1850-1877	Leopold Pelldram	1865-1867	Johannes von Geissel	1845-1864
		Matthias Eberhard	1867-1876	Paul Melchers	1866-1885
Paul Leopold Haffner	1886-1899	Michael Felix Korum	1881-1921	Philipp Krementz	1885-1899
Heinrich Brück	1900-1903			Anton Hubert Fischer	1902-1912
Georg Heinrich Kirstein	1903-1921			Felix von Hartmann	1912-1919
Ludwig Maria Hugo	1921-1935	Franz Rudolf Bornewasser	1922-1951	Karl Joseph Schulte	1920-1941
Albert Stohr	1935-1961	Matthias Wehr	1951-1967	Josef Frings	1942-1969
Hermann Cardinal Volk	1962-1982	Bernhard Stein	1967-1980	Joseph Höffner	1969-1987
Karl Cardinal Lehmann	1983-present	Hermann Josef Spital	1981-2001	Joachim Meisner	1988-present
		Reinhard Marx	2002-present

The lists of all the Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne are taken from the Regentenlisten und Stammtafeln zur Geschichte Europas, by Michael F. Feldkamp [Philipp Reclam, Stuttgart, 2002, pp. 295-306 & 348-352] and from Wikipedia.

Patriarchal Index

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Archbishops of Salzburg

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Copyright (c) 2002, 2003, 2008 Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D. All Rights Reserved

Archbishops of Canterbury, Roman Durovernum
1 St. Augustine	597-605
2 Laurentius	605-619
3 Mellitus	619-624
4 Justus	624-627
5 Honorius	627-653
6 Deusdedit	655-664
7 Theodore of Tarsus	668-690
8 Berhtuald/ Berctwald	693-731
9 Taetwine/ Tatwin	731-734
10 Nothelm	734-740
11 Cuthbert	740-758
12 Breogwine	759-762
13 Jaenberht	763-790
14 Aethelheard	790-803
15 Wulfred	803-829
16 Fleogild	829-830
17 Ceolnoth	830-870
18 Aethelred	870-889
19 Plegemund	891-923
20 Aethelm	923-925
21 Wulfelm	928-941
22 Odo	941-958
23 Aelsine	958-959
24 Dunstan	959-988
25 Aethelgar	988-989
26 Sigeric	990-994
27 Aefric	995-1005
28 Alphege	1006-1012
29 Lyfing	1013-1020
30 Aethelnoth	1020-1038
31 Eadsige	1038-1050
32 Robert of Jumièges	1051-1052
33 Stigand	1052-1070
34 Lanfranc	1070-1089
35 St. Anselm	1093-1109
36 Ralph de Turbine	1114-1122
37 William de Corbeuil	1123-1136
38 Theobald	1139-1161
39 St. Thomas Becket	1162-1170
40 Richard	1174-1184
41 Baldwin	1185-1190
42 Reginald Fitz- Jocelin	1191
43 Hubert Walter	1193-1205
44 Stephen Langton	1207-1228
45 Richard Wethershed	1229-1231
46 Edmund Rich (de Abbendon)	1233-1240
47 Boniface of Savoy	1240-1270
48 Robert Kilwardby	1273-1278
49 John Peckham	1279-1292
50 Robert Winchelsea	1293-1313
51 Walter Reynolds	1313-1372
52 Simon de Meopham	1327-1333
53 John Stratford	133-1348
54 John de Ufford	1348-1349
55 Thomas Bradwardin	1349
56 Simon Islip	1349-1366
57 Simon Langham	1366-1368
58 William Wittlesey	1368-1374
59 Simon Sudbury	1375-1381
60 William Courtenay	1381-1396
61 Thomas Arundel	1396-1414
62 Henry Chicheley	1414-1443
63 John Stafford	1443-1452
64 John Kemp	1452-1454
65 Thomas Bourchier	1454-1486
66 John Morton	1486-1500
67 Henry Deane	1501-1503
68 William Warham	1503-1532
69 Thomas Cranmer	1533-1556
executed by Queen Mary
70 Reginald Pole	1556-1558
71 Matthew Parker	1559-1575
72 Edmund Grindal	1575-1583
73 John Whitgift	1583-1604
73 Richard Bancroft	1604-1610
73 George Abbot	1611-1633
76 William Laud	1633-1645
vacant, 1645-1660
77 William Juxon	1660-1663
78 Gilbert Sheldon	1663-1677
79 William Sancroft	1678-1691
80 John Tillotson	1691-1694
81 Thomas Tenison	1694-1715
82 William Wake	1716-1737
83 John Potter	1737-1747
84 Thomas Herring	1747-1757
85 Matthew Hutton	1757-1758
86 Thomas Ecker	1758-1768
87 Frederick Cornwallis	1768-1783
88 John Moore	1783-1805
89 Charles Manners-Sutton	1805-1828
90 William Howley	1828-1848
91 John Bird Sumner	1848-1862
92 Charles Thomas Longley	1862-1868
93 Archibald Campbell Tait	1868-1882
94 Edward White Benson	1882-1896
95 Frederick Temple	1896-1902
96 Randall Davidson	1903-1928
97 Cosmo Gordon Lang	1928-1942
98 William Temple	1942-1944
99 Geoffrey Francis Fisher	1945-1961
100 Arthur Michael Ramsey	1961-1974
101 Frederick Donald Coggan	1974-1980
102 Robert Alexander Kennedy Runcie	1980-1991
103 George Leonard Carey	1991-2002
104 Rowan Douglas Williams	2002-present

The Archbishop of Canterbury is the Primate of England. His seat is at Canterbury because this was the capital of the Kingdom of Kent, an obvious place for St. Augustine, who was sent in 596 by Pope Gregory (I) the Great (590-604), to seek royal favor, from King (later St.) Æthelbert I, for his mission. The early Archbishops, down to Taetwine (Tatwin) are given by the Venerable Bede (673-735) in his History of the English Church and People (731). The first part of this is still well in the Dark Ages, but it is already not too long before the time of Bede himself.

Several Archbishops are particularly noteworthy. St. Anselm was one of the most important philosophers of the 12th century, responsible for the "ontological argument" for the existence of God which would bedevil subsequent thinkers. He was himself a Lombard who had entered a monastery in Normandy. As Archbishop, he was involved in the particular political dispute of his time, trying to strip secular rulers, in this case the Kings of England, of their powers to designate bishops of the Church. In Germany, this occurred as the formidable and epic Investiture Controversy (1076-1122). Things got so hot that Anselm spent some years in exile (1097-1100, 1103-1107).

Soon after Anselm came Thomas à Becket, who had been a friend and official of King Henry II but after becoming Archbishop entered into further attempts to limit secular authority, in this case in defense of clerics accused of crimes. Since the crimes were sometimes things like murder and rape, for which Becket's ecclesiastical courts often only handed down nominal punishments, it is understandable that Henry took exception to clerical immunity to secular prosecution. A careless wish expressed by Henry resulted in Becket's murder. While Becket was immediately canonized and enthusiastically venerated, he was not a selfless advocate for justice, but a rather foolish champion of clerical privilege who seems to have almost been eager to provoke his own martyrdom. He did succeed, and long afterwards inspired rather good books, plays, and movies of the business. Although some of these make Becket out to have been a Saxon, defending native Englishmen against Norman rulers like Henry, he was actually just as much a Norman himself.

After many centuries, Thomas Cranmer was the first Protestant Archbishop,

Archbishops of Salzburg, Roman Iuvavum
Arno	Bishop, 785-798
	Archbishop, 798-821
Adalram	821-836
Liutpram	836-859
Adalwin	859-873
Adalbert I	873-874
Dietmar I	874-907
Pilgrim I	907-923
Adalbert II	923-935
Egilolf	935-939
Herold of Scheyern	939-958, d.984
Friedrich I	958-991
Hartwig	991-1023
Gunther of Meißen	1024-1025
Dietmar II	1025-1041
Balduin	1041-1060
Gebhard	1060-1088
Thiemo of Medling	1090-1101
Konrad I	1106-1147
Eberhard I	1147-1164
Konrad II of Austria	1164-1168
Adalbert III	1168-1177, 1183-1200
Konrad III of Wittelsbach	1177-1183, d.1200
Eberhard II of Regensburg	1200-1246
Burkard of Ziegenhain	1247
Philipp of Carinthia	1247-1256
Ulrich	1257-1265, d.1268
Ladislaus of Schlesien	1265-1270
Friedrich II of Walchen	1273-1284
Rudolf of Hoheneck	1284-1290
Konrad IV of Fohnsdorf- Praitenfurt	1291-1312
Weichard of Polheim	1312-1315
Friedrich III of Leibnitz	1316-1338
Heinrich of Piernbrunn	1338-1343
Ortolf of Weißeneck	1343-1365
Pilgrim II of Puchheim	1366-1396
Georg I Schenk of Osterwitz	1396-1403
Eberhard III of Neuhaus	1403-1427
Eberhard IV of Starhemberg	1427-1429
Johannes of Reichenberg	1429-1441
Friedrich IV of Emmerberg	1441-1452
Sigismund I of Volkersdorf	1452-1461
Burkard of Weißbriach	1462-1466
Bernhard of Rohr	1466-1482, d.1487
Johannes Beckenschlager	Coadjutor, 1482-1487
	Archbishop, 1487-1489
Friederich V of Schaumburg	1490-1494
Sigismund II of Holneck	1494-1495
Leonhard of Keutschach	1495-1519
Matthäus Lang of Wellenburg	Coadjutor, 1512-1519
	Archbishop, 1519-1540
Ernst of Bavaria	1540-1554, d.1560
Michael of Kuenberg	1554-1560
Johannes Jakob of Kuen-Belasy	1561-1586
Georg II of Kuenberg	Coadjutor, 1580-1586
	Archbishop, 1586-1587
Wolf Dietrich of Raittenau	1587-1612, d.1617
Marcus Sitticus of Hohenems	1612-1619
Paris of Lodron	1621-1653
Guidobald of Thun	1654-1668
Max Gandolf of Kuenberg	1668-1687
Johann Ernst of Thun	1687-1709
Franz Anton of Harrach	1709-1727
Leopold Anton of Firmian	1727-1744
Jakob Ernst of Liechtenstein	1745-1747
Andreas Jakob of Dietrichstein	1749-1753
Sigmund Christoph of Schrattenbach	1753-1771
Hieronymous Joseph Franz of Colloredo- Waldsee	Archbishop, Landesherr, 1772-1803, d.1812
Ferdinand, III of Tuscany	Duke of Tuscany, 1790-1801, 1814-1824
	Elector of Salzburg, 1803-1806
	Elector of Würzburg, 1806
	Grand Duke of Würzburg, 1806-1814

helping King Henry VIII to break the Church of England away from Rome, seize monastic properties, etc. This earned him arrest by the subsequent Catholic Queen Mary. Tortured into confessing to heresy, Cranmer was going to be burned at the stake nevertheless. At the event, he recanted his confessions and thrust his own hand into the flames for signing the coerced documents, saying, "This hath offended; oh, this unworthy hand!" The Martyr's Memorial stands outside Balliol College, Oxford, where Cranmer and two other prelates were excecuted.

The See stood empty during the Civil War (1640-1649), Commonwealth (1649-1653), and the Protectorate (1653-1660) of the Cromwells but has had to endure little in the way of such political trials since. Instead, the Church has tried so hard, despite being a State Religion, not to be judgmental, exclusive, or demanding that it has seemed to cease to stand for, or mean, much of anything. It has thus steadily lost membership and excites comments like the following, from Michael Whelton:

This position of so-called "inclusiveness" back in the 1950s and 1960s was perceived by many in the British Isles as slightly preposterous. Sadly, the Anglican Church lost respect, influence, and relevance, becoming the target of much satire and the butt of many jokes. One comedian declared, "In England we have a wonderful institution called the Anglican Church, and no one from Joseph Stalin to Mao Tse Tung can say with any certainty that he is not a member." [Popes and Patriarchs, Conciliar Press, 2006, p.15]

Even better we have the classic poem by T.S. Elliot, "The Hippopotamus," comparing that animal, favorably, to the Church of England. The poem can be examined in a popup.

We see a classic expression of the 19th century politics of the Church of England in Anthony Trollope's Barchester Towers (1857), with conflict between the traditionalist High Church and the Evangelical, Protestantizing Low Church. Indeed, even today the Anglican Church remains ritually so close to the Roman Catholic Church that Anglican priests who convert to Catholicism are accepted as Catholic priests, even if they are married. They are, I believe, the only married priests in the Catholic Church.

Already in the 19th century there were some high-profile converts to Catholicism, such as John Henry Newman (1801-1890), who went on from a pinacle of Anglican scholarship at Oxford to be a Catholic priest (1846) and then cardinal (1879). Nevertheless, he is still commemorated at Oriel College, Oxford, where he obtained a fellowship in 1822. There he steadily moved from Calvinist sentiments and association with the Low Church to the creation of the High Church "Oxford Movement." This led steadily on towards Catholcism and conversion in 1845.

Salzburg was a very large eccelesiastical state. Its principal claim to fame may be as the birthplace of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1736-1791). Apart from European tours, Mozart lived in Salzburg and worked for the Archbishop (who has been described as "strict and unkind") until 1781. At this time, of course, composers could be treated as feudal retainers not much above the status of footmen. Mozart then died in poverty and was buried in an anonymous pauper's grave in Vienna. Before long, composers like Ludwig van Beethoven became such figures of public celebrity that such a fate was unthinkable.

Another minor claim to fame for Salzburg may be that the location shots for the 1965 movie The Sound of Music were in or near the city. For people who have not visited the area, the movie contains the images of the Alps that they probably retain.

Eventually Salzburg fell to Napoleon's rearrangements of Europe. In 1803 it was made an Imperial Electorate for the deposed Hapsburg Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand III. When Napoleon gave the city to Austria in 1806, Ferdinand was moved to Würzburg, which became a Grand Duchy when Napoleon abolished the Empire in the same year. In 1809 Napoleon took Salzburg from Austria and gave it to a better ally, Bavaria; but then Austria got it back at the Congress of Vienna. Since 1815 it has remained part of Austria. Ferdinand returned to Tuscany.

The list of the Archbishops of Salzburg is taken from the Regentenlisten und Stammtafeln zur Geschichte Europas, by Michael F. Feldkamp [Philipp Reclam, Stuttgart, 2002, pp. 295-306 & 348-352].

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Copyright (c) 2002, 2003, 2004, 2007 Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D. All Rights Reserved

Constantinople now fades from memory. It's name resonates like something from legend or mythology, and many who hear the name may not quite know what it was or where to place it in their conceptual or historical universe. Indeed, it belongs to something that most would think of as oxymoronic or impossible:  the Mediaeval Roman Empire. As Schopenhauer says of what is excellent, Constantinople is "like a meteorite, sprung from an order of things different from that which prevails here" [The World as Will and Representation, Volume I, §59, Dover Publications, 1966, E.F.J. Payne translation, p.324]. To someone who hears only the drumbeat that Rome "Fell" in 476, this introduces a sort of cognitive dissonance. Something isn't quite right there. Something doesn't compute. Something must be rethought. Indeed, Constantinople requires much rethinking. It was the last capital of the Rome Empire, Roma Nova, "New Rome," or Constantinou Polis, the "City of Constantine," for many centuries the largest and richest city in Europe and Christendom, the repository of much of Greek and Roman Classical learning. When it Fell to the Turks in 1453, it became much the same thing again, the largest and richest city, in Islâm (outside, perhaps, India), a repository of its own wealth, learning, and romance, still echoing in the Maltese Falcon [1930]. Now, as Istanbul, the City is simply a large modern city, the largest in Turkey, but no longer a capital, a fortress, a redoubt, or a beacon of culture or religion. Nevertheless, among the ruins, like those of the great Land Walls, there is one fragile institution that survives from the earliest days of the City:  the Office of Christian Patriarch of Constantinople.

The Cathedral Church of Constantinople was the Church of "Holy Wisdom," Hagia Sophia in Greek, Sancta Sophia in Latin, and Ayasofya as rendered into Turkish (based on the Mediaeval and Modern Greek pronunciation). This was built in its present form by the Emperor Justinian, although subsequently damaged by earthquakes and then restored. At the Fall of Constantiople to the Turks in 1453, the Church was converted into a mosque, with minarets added. Fortunately, the many mosaics of the Church were painted over rather than destroyed. With the secularization of the Turkish state by Atatürk, the building became a museum, and the mosaics were uncovered. However, even while a small chapel has been added for Islamic worship, Christian worship is still prohibited in the building. While in its day Hagia Sophia was architecturally unique, and remained so for centuries -- also as the largest Church in Christendom -- the Ottomans began to build great mosques in the same style, culminating in the Sultan Ahmad (I), or Blue, Mosque nearby, built adjacent to, and using many of the stones from, the classical Hippodrome. The style of the Church has thus entered the canons of Islamic architecure, even while the form of churches developed separately.

While the early Church Councils conceded to the Papacy the position of primus inter pares, "first among equals," this did not give to the Popes any special authority. Second place in precedence was acknowledged for the Patriarch of Constantinople by the Ecumenical Council II of 381, though this was somewhat resented by the older Patriarchates at Alexandria and Antioch. The elevated status for Constantinople was because, of course, this had become the seat of the Emperor, beginning with Constantine, and the principal capital of the Roman Empire. Even when there was a Western Emperor, his seat was no longer at Rome, but in Milan and Ravenna. Indeed, more of the Ecumenical Councils were held in Constantinople (II, V, VI, VIII) than elsewhere -- and Council IV was held just across the Bosporus in Chalcedon.

In Constantinople it was unmistakable that the Emperor imposed a unity on the Church that it would not otherwise have, and that would not otherwise be claimed until the Papacy began arrogating powers to itself that otherwise had belonged only to the Emperor or to Church Councils. I have discussed above how the term "Caesaro-Papism," often used for the role of the Emperor in Constantinople, is applied more appropriately to the Popes themselves, whose claims and accumulation of power were an innovation, while the role of the Emperor had precedents all the way back to Constantine (and earlier, when a Roman Emperor was the Pontifex Maximus). What ends up being distinctive about the Orthodox Churches in communion with Constantinople is that, although Constantinople was responsible for the establishment of several such Churches, e.g. Bulgaria and Russia, the new ones ended up with independent authority, i.e. they were autocephalous, and were in no way subordinate to Constantinople the way the Popes expected national churches to be obedient to them. The principle is still that Orthodox Churches base their doctrine on the Ecumenical Councils. Orthodox Churches not in communion with the Patriarch of Constantinople today reject one of the seven Councils noted in the list of Patriarchs. Thus, the Church of the East rejects Council III and the Monophysite Churches of Egypt and Syria reject Council IV. As shown in the diagram, the Churches loyal to Constantinople in the traditional Patriarchates, generally called "Melkite" ("Royal" or, really, "Imperial"), are the Antiochian Church of Antioch, the Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem, and the Melkite Church of Alexandria. Otherwise, we see national Churches of Greece, Bulgaria, Russia, etc., that are in agreement with Constantinople without being governed by it. Since the Patriarch of Constantinople, living in Turkey, no longer is responsible for the national Church of a traditionally Christian nation, he has come to be simple the "Ecumenical" Patriarch.

A curious institution that is governed by the Patriarch of Constantinople, or at least operates under his direct authority, is the "Holy Mountain," Hágion Óros, Mt. Áthôs. This is the most north-eastern of three peninsulas that extend out into the Aegean Sea from the larger peninsula of the Chalcidice. There are still 20 active monasteries on the Mountain, with a number of smaller settlements and institutions. The road from the mainland ends at Uranopolis (or Ouranoupoli, one now usually sees spellings that reflect modern Greek pronunciation -- I have Latinized many of the names, but the spelling of the monasteries especially reflects this trend). From there one (men only) must take a boat down to Daphne. From Daphne a road, recently built, goes up to Caryes (Karyes, Karyai), the town that is the administrative center of the Mountain, on the land of the Koutloumousiou Monastery. Although most Greek churches operate under the authority of the autocephalous Greek Orthodox Church, Mt. Áthôs is still under the direct jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constantinople. Over the years, monasteries were founded, not just by Greeks, but by Georgians, Serbs, Bulgarians, Russians, and even Italians. The Italians are now gone (there being the Schism and all), but there are also (modern) Romanians present, though they do not have their own monastery. Mt. Áthôs thus unites all the Orthodox Churches who share the theology of Constantinople. The mysticism of the theology of Mt. Áthôs contrasts with the humanism of Mistra -- this is discussed elsewhere in relation to the Renaissance. The Great Laura Monastery, the first of many in this most sacred place, the Mt. Hiei, , of Orthodox Christianity, was built (961-963) by St. Athanasius during the Macedonian Dynasty. Tradition holds with some earlier foundations, and several small hermitages, as well as individual hermits in caves and elsewhere, certainly had been there for some time; but the Great Laura is the first for which there is contemporary historical documentation.

There are many more Patriarchs of Constantinople than there are Popes. Since the Emperor was present in the City, and religious issues were political issues that concerned the Emperor and the populace, many Patriarchs were deposed in doctrinal, jurisdictional, and purely political disputes, sometimes even to be reinstated. This problem continued under the Ottomans, when the Sult.ân deposed Patriarchs 105 times, and 6 were even killed. Also, the Sult.ân once (1587) confiscated the Patriarchal seat, at the monastery of St. Mary Pammakaristos. The traditional Cathedral of Constantinople, of course, was the great Church of Santa (Sancta/Hagia) Sophia. With the Ottoman Conquest, this was immediately taken over as a mosque. The Patriarchate briefly was based at the second church of the City, the Church of the Holy Apostles, which may already have been in disrepair. Afterwards, it was demolished by the Ottomans for the Mosque of the Sult.ân Meh.med II (Fâtih. Jâmi-i). When the Patriarchate settled in the Phanar Quarter, it was forbidden to build a new church, and forbidden to have any church with a dome. The church of St. George has been rebuilt more than once, and is still the seat of the Patriarch.

As in the Francis Ford Coppola quote discussed above, I begin to see popular comparisons of the Othrodox Church with Catholicism and Protestantism. Much Orthodox antipathy seems to be directed at St. Augustine of Hippo (354-430), even though Augustine lived long before the Schism between the Churches and so does properly count as a Saint in the Orthodox as well as in the Catholic tradition. Nevertheless, the Orthodox view seems to be that things in the West really began to go wrong starting with him. Augustine is unfavorably compared with his contemporary, St. John I Chrysostom ("Golden Mouth," c.347-407), Patriarch of Constantinople, 398-404. One issue that definitely engages moderns is their attitude towards sex. Augustine sees Original Sin embodied in sex, and the involuntary sexual response itself represents the rebellion of Adam and Eve against God. Before the Fall, arousal was under voluntary control. This now seems rather bizarre, as it already did to Chrysostom. The Greek Church did not make the strong connection between sex and sin that the Catholic Church did. One consequence of this may have been the allowance for clerical marriage under Constantinople but the eventual requirement of clerical celibacy under Rome. To be sure, Christianity is conflicted. St. Paul does say "It is better to marry than to burn" [I Corinthians 7:9], where we are given to understand that fornication is punishable by damnation. At the same time, orthodox Christianity did not go as far as Neoplatonism, Manicheanism, or Gnosticism, where matter and the body can be construed as intrinsically evil, requiring celibacy for all those, lay or clerical, seeking Salvation. For a world-denying religion, Christianity represented a kind of Middle Way between ascetic mortification and hedonistic excess. Just where it comes down in the Middle is the question. It is clear from Genesis that the Fall has something to do with sex, since Adam and Eve become ashamed of their bodies. Whether this is a matter of privacy or of evil is open to interpretation. After the Essenes, Judaism found nothing wrong about suitably private sexual activity. The Orthodox Church seems more in this vein. Having rebelled, not against God but against Catholicism, Protestantism has gone in many directions, though nearly all Protestant Churches have become accustomed to divorce, despite clear statements by Jesus against it except for adultery [Matthew 5:32]. The Catholic Church had drifted into forbidding divorce for any reason -- but now increasingly provides annulments as the equivalent. Orthodox divorce is easier than in Catholicism, though not as easy as in Protestantism. Orthodox priests can marry, but then they cannot rise further in the hierarchy. Thus, the Church tends to get governed by priests who have taken monastic vows on top of the priesthood, and remain celibate. This is definitely more in the Christian tradition, where Protestants completely ignore the saying of Jesus: "And there be eunuchs, which have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's sake. He that is able to receive it, let him receive it" [Matthew 19:12]. Catholics forgot the "he that is able" part, while Protestants forget the whole thing.

Although the list of Bishops of Byzantium is given from the early days of the Church, this was not a particularly important city at the time, and one wonders about its historicity even more than with the early Bishops given for Rome. Much the same might be said about the early Armenian Church. The establishment of Christianity in Armenia (301) and by Constantine (312) for Rome, and then the founding of Constantinople (324-330), all bring the lists fully into history -- whence to continue until the present day.

Latin Patriarchs of Constantinople, 1204-1261
Thomas Morosoni	1204-1211
Vacant, 1211-1215
Gervase	1215-1219
Vacant, 1219-1221
Matthew	1221-1226
John Halgrin	1226
Simon	1227-1233
Vacant, 1233-1234
Nicholas de Castro Arquato	1234-1251
Vacant, 1251-1253
Pantaleon Giustiani	1253-1286
Titular Latin Patriarchs, 1261-1948
Peter Correr	1286-1302
Leonard Faliero	1302-1305?
Nicholas, Archbishop of Thebes	1308-1331?
Cardinalis	1332-1335
Gozio Battaglia	1335-1339
Roland de Ast	1339
Henry de Ast, Bishop of Negroponte	1339-1345
Stephen de Pinu	1346
William	1346-1361, administrator, 1361-1364
St. Peter Thomas, Archbishop of Crete	1364-1366
Paul, Archbishop of Thebes	1366-1370
Hugolin Malabranca	1371-1375?
James d'Itri, Archbishop of Otranto	1376-1378
William, Bishop of Urbino	1379
Paul	1379-?
Angelo Correr	1390-1405
	Pope Gregory XII
Louis, Archbishop of Mitylene	1405-?
Cardinal Antonio Correr	administator, 1408
Alphonese, Archbishop of Seville	1408-?
Francis Lando, Patriarch of Grado	?-1409
John Contarini	1409-?, 1424-?
John de La Rochetaillee	1412-1423
Gregory Mamme	1451-1459
Cardinal Bessarion	1459-1472
Peter Riario	1472-1474
Jerome Lanod, Archbishop of Crete	1474-1493/6
Cardinal John Michael	1497-1503
Cardinal John Borgia	1503-1503
Cardinal Francis de Lorris	1503-1506
Tamás Bakócz	1507-1521
unknown, 1521-1594
Silvio Savelli	1594-1599
Bonifazio Bevilacqua Aldobrandini	1598-1627?
unknown, 1627?-1640
Francesco Maria Macchiavelli	1640-1641
Giovanni Giacomo Panciroli	1641-1643
Giovanni Battista Spada	1643-1675?
unknown, 1675?-1706
Lodovico Pico Della Mirandola	1706-1718
Camillo Cybo	1718-1743
vacant, 1743-1751
Ferdinando Maria de Rossi	1751-1771?
Juan Portugal de la Puebla	1771-1781
unknown, 1781-1823
Giuseppe della Porta Rodiani	1823-1835
Giovanni Soglia Ceroni	1835-1844
Fabio Maria Asquini	1844-1851
Dominicus Lucciardi	1851-1860
Iosephus Melchiades Ferlisi	1860-1865
	Latin Patriarch of Antioch, 1858-1860
Rogerius Aloysius Emygdius Antici Mattei	1866-1878
Iacobus Gallo	1878-1881
vacant, 1881-1887
Iulius Lenti	1887-1895
Ioannes Baptista Casali del Drago	1895-1899
Alexander Sanminiatelli Zabarella	1899-1901
Carlo Nocella	1901-1903, d.1908
	Latin Patriarch of Antioch, 1899-1901
Giuseppe Ceppetelli	1903-1917
vacant, 1917-1923
Michele Zezza di Zapponeta	1923-1927
Antonio Anastasio Rossi	1927-1948
vacant, 1948-1964; abolished 1965

A benchmark on the survival of Classical and later Greek literature can be found in the Bibiotheca of the Patriarch Photius the Great (858-867, 877-886), which contains 280 reviews. This is not a catalogue of existing literature, or of a particular library, not even that of Photius. It is a treatment of works familiar to Photius, apart from the mainstream of general education, that Photius is recommending to his brother Tarasius. Thus, popular authors like Homer, Plato, Aristotle, or the Greek playwrights are missing from the list. Photius' treatment ranges from brief descriptions and evaluations to long summaries and discussions. Of the 386 works mentioned by Photius, 239 are theological. Nevertheless, only 43% of the text actually focuses on them. The majority of the text (in a book whose modern edition in Greek is 1600 pages long) is thus secular. For example, in addressing A History of Events After Alexander (in ten books) by the Roman historian Arrian of Nicomedia (an early member of the Second Sophistic), we get a long summary of those very events, which are often obscure enough that every description helps. Although much of Arrian survives, and his Anabasis Alexandri is the best account of the campaigns of Alexander, all we have of A History of Events After Alexander is Photius' summary. Our benchmark is that about half of the works mentioned by Photius, like the Events, are now lost. It is distressing to think of what survived, despite the Dark Ages, and then what later disasters, like the Fourth Crusade, may have cost us. It is hard to imagine an undisturbed Constantinople being subsequently so careless with its literary heritage. At no other Court of the age could visitors have found the nobility quoting Homer. [cf. Photius, The Bibiotheca, A selection translated with notes by N.G. Wilson, Duckworth, London, 1994.] Photius, whose Bibliotheca was only part of his literary output, was a major political figure and himself was responsible for the mission of Cyril and Methodius to convert the Slavs.

When the Crusaders took Constantinople in 1204, a Latin Patriarch was installed. This event, of course, is still remembered with bitterness in Greece and all the Orthodox Churches, since it fatally weakened in the Orthodox world in the face of the threat of the Turks. Even when the City was retaken by the Palaeologi in 1261, the Latin Patriarch fled, and the line continued with a titular Patriarch living in Rome until falling vacant in 1948. The position was than formally abolished, with some other Latin Patriarchates, in 1965, certainly as part of the ecumenical reconciliation of Pope Paul VI with the Patriarch Athenagoras. This confusion of multiple Patriarchs, however, is typical for the other classical Patriarchal Sees. No less than four prelates, for instance, claim the title of Patriarch of Alexandria and of Jerusalem. There are also at least six Patriarchs of Antioch. Late in Ottoman history, we get Armenian Patriarchs of Constantinople, as in the list that follows.

The Armenian Patriarchs of Constantinople
Maghakia Ormanian	1896- 1908
Madteos Izmirlian	1908- 1909
Yeghische Tourian	1909- 1910
Hovhannes Arscharouni	1911- 1913
Zaven Der Yeghiayan	1913- 1922
Mesrob Naroyan	1927- 1943
Karekin Khacha- dourian	1951- 1961
Shenork Kaloustian	1963- 1990
Karekin II Kazanjian	1990- 1998
Mesrop Mutafyan	1998- present

While most Americans would think of the Patriarch of Constantinople as the head of the Greek Orthodox Church, this is not necessarily the case and gives rise to some confusion. The problem began when Greece revolted against the Turks in 1821. The unfortunate Patriarch Gregory V (1797-1798, 1806-1808, & 1818-1821) was actually hanged because of suspected sympathy for the revolt, or perhaps just to discourage and terrorize local Greeks. Greek independence was recognized in 1830, and a Greek national Church then broke away from the Patriarchate in 1833. The Patriarch recognized the Greek Church as autocephalous in 1850. At that point, the "Greek Orthodox Church" can simply mean the Greek national Church, not the Church of the Patriarch. Further tension between Greece and the Turks occurred in the Balkan Wars and World War I, when Greece was fighting with the Allies. After the War, Greece then tried to seize Smyrna (Izmir). Soundly defeating the Greeks, the Turks directed considerable displeasure at the unfortunate Patriarch and then expelled nearly all ethnic Greeks remaining in Turkey -- as part of an "exchange" with Greece, so that Christians left Turkey and Muslims left Greece -- although many of the former were actually Turkish speaking and the latter Greek speaking. This means that the Patriarch is just about all that is left of the ancient Greek community in Istanbul.

Over the years, the question must have come up many times whether the Patriarch should simply quit what now is so unfriendly a City. Fortunately, he has not, and so a single institution continues in Istanbul that has survived right from the days of Constantine. Now, since confusion would arise by calling the Patriarch's Church "Greek Orthodox," it has become customary to identify him as the "Ecumenical" Patriarch. Before 1833, however, worries about the Church of Constantinople not being the "Greek Orthodox Church" would be anachronistic. Since the language and liturgy of the Church of Constantinople has always been Greek, "Greek Orthodox" in historic terms is always going to mean the Church that used the Greek language. "Greek Orthodox" is still used for other Churches, as of Jerusalem, that have nothing to do with the Greek national Church but that are in doctrinal communion with the Patriarch of Constantinople.

The Walls of Constantinople, initially completed in 413, despite their preservation, are rarely noted or acknowledged as one of the architectural wonders of the Ancient World. This is probably because of the ideological blind spot that afflicts historians who dislike the world of Late Antiquity. There came to be strong religious associations with them. The Virgin of Blachernae -- the Blacherniotissa -- was an Icon that for centuries was though to protect the City. On the eve of the Turkish conquest, the legend is that the Icon was taken up to Heaven, a sure sign that the City would fall. Similarly, the last Emperor, Constantine XI, whose body is supposed to have disappeared during the sack of the City, was believed by many to subsequently be asleep under the Golden Gate, though which he would rise and reënter the City. This may be one reason why the Golden Gate has been kept closed up since the Conquest.

Patriarchal Index

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Copyright (c) 2001, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009 Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D. All Rights Reserved

Patriarchs of Alexandria
St. Mark I the Evangelist	43-61, d.63
Anianus	61-82
Avilius	83-95
Kedron	96-106
Primus	106-118
Justus	118-129
Eumenes	131-141
Mark II	142-152
Celadion	152-166
Agrippinus	167-178
Julian	178-189
Demetrius	189-232
Heraclas	232-248
St. Dionysius	248-264
Maximus	265-282
Theonas	282-300
St. Peter I	300-311
Achillas	312-313
St. Alexander I	313-328
St. Athanasius I	328-373
Frumentius, first Primate of Ethiopia, c.305?
[Pistus]	335-337
[Gregory]	340-346
[George]	357-361
[Lucius]	365, 375-378
Peter II	373-380
Timothy I	380-385
Theophilus I	385-412
leads Destruction of the Serapeum, 391
St. Cyril I	412-444
St. Dioscorus I	444-451, d. 454
President of "Robber" Council, Ephesus II, 449, Monophysitism affirmed, still recognized by Monophysite Churches
St. Proterius	452-457
Timothy/ Timotheos II Eluros	457-460, 475-477
Coptic Patriarchs of Alexandria,
Petros III Monge	477, 482-489
Athanasios II Keletes	489-496
Yoannis I	496-505
Yoannis II	505-516
Dioscoros II	516-517
Timotheos III	517-535
Theodosios I	535-566
[Gaïanos]	535
[Elpidios]	?-565
Dorotheos	565-580
[Theodoros]	575-587
[Petros IV]	575-578
Damianos	578-607
Anastasios	607-619
Andronikos	619-665
[Benjamin I]	626-665
[Mina]	634
Agatho	665-681
Yoannis III	681-689
Isaac	689?-692?
Simeon I	692-700
[Theodoros]	c.695
Alexandros II	702-729
Kosma I	729-730
Theodoros II	730-742
Mikhael I	743-767
Mina I	767-775
Yoannis IV	776-799
Markos II	799-819
Yakub	819-830
Simeon II	830
Yousab I	831-849
Khail/ Mikhael II	849-851
Kosma II	851-858
Shenouda I	859-880
Khail/ Mikhael III	880-907
[vacant]	907-910
Gabriel I	910-921
Kosma III	921-933
Macari I	933?-953?
Theophelios/ Theophanes	953-956
Mina II	956-974
Patriarchate moves to Cairo, 960
Abraham/ Ephrem	975-978
Philotheos	979-1003
Zacharias	1004-1032
Shenouda II	1032-1046
Khristosolos	1047-1077
Kirellos II	1078-1092
Mikhael IV	1092-1102
Macari II	1102-1128
[vacant]	1128-1131
Gabriel II	1131-1145
Mikhael IV or V	1145-1146
Yoannis V	1146-1166
Markos III	1166-1189
Yoannis VI	1189-1216
[vacant]	1216-1235
Kirellos III	1235-1243
[vacant]	1243-1250
Athanasios III	1250-1261
Yoannis VII	1261-1268, 1271-1293
Gabriel III	1268-1271
Theodosios III	1294-1300
Yoannis VIII	1300-1320
Yoannis IX	1320-1327
Benjamin II	1327-1339
Petros V	1340-1348
Marcos IV	1348-1363
Yoannis X	1363-1369
Gabriel IV	1370-1378
Matheos I	1378-1408
Gabriel V	1408/9- 1427/8
"Mikhael IV"?	1428
Yoannis XI	1428-1453
Matheos II	1453-1466
Gabriel VI	.1466-1475
[vacant]	1475-1477
Mikhail IV (VII)	1477-1478
[vacant]	1478-1480
Yoannis XII	1480-1483
Yoannis XIII	1483-1524
[vacant]	1524-1526
Gabriel VII	1526-1569
[vacant]	1569-1573
Yoannis XIV	1573-1589
Gabriel VIII	1590-1601
[vacant]	1601-1610
Marcos V (VI)	1610-1621?
Yoannis XV	1621?-1631?
Matheos III	1631?-1645?
Marcos VI (VII)	1645?-1660
Matheos IV	1660-1676
Yoannis XVI	1676-1718
Petros VI	1718-1726
Yoannis XVII	1727-1745
Markos VIII	1745-1770
Yoannis XVIII	1770-1797
Markos IX	1797-1810
Petros VII	1810-1854
Kirellos IV	1854-1861
Dimitrios II	1862-1870
[vacant]	1870-1874
Kirellos V	1874-1928
Yoannis XIX	1929-1942
[vacant]	1942-1944
Makari III	1944-1945
Yusab II	1946-1956
First Ethiopian Primate of Ethiopia, 1950; autonomous Patriarchate of Ethiopia, 1959
[vacant]	1956-1959
Kirellos VI	1959-1971
Shenouda III	1971-present

There is no way of knowing whether St. Mark was the first Patriarch of Alexandria, but there is little doubt that the Christian community in Egypt is very old. Even before Christianity was officially tolerated, Egypt was one of the strongholds of the new religion. There seem to have been affinities between Christianity and traditional Egyptian religiosity. Some of the iconography of traditional Egyptian religion could be adapted to Christianity. Isis suckling Horus now becomes Mary suckling Jesus. Egypt also benefits from the Biblical tradition that Mary and Joseph fled to Egypt with Jesus to avoid Herod's slaughter of the children. Sites of the Family's sojourn are still revered.

The influence of the Egyptian Church on the Church in general then becomes considerable. Monasticism really began in Egypt, apparently with St. Antony (d.356). The most important doctrinal influence, however, came from the Patriarch St. Athanasius, who attended the Council of Nicaea in 325, strongly opposing the doctrine of Arius (Arianism) that Christ was perfect Man but not perfect God. Since Arianism enjoyed considerable Imperial favor until Theodosius I, Athanasius experienced a good deal of trouble. He was exiled to Trier (335-337) and then to Rome (339-346). Constantius II tried to arrest him in 356, but he escaped into the desert until the Emperor died in 361. He was unmolested from 366 to his death in 373. Several opposing Patriarchs will be noted in the list. Athanasian Orthodoxy, that Christ was God of God, was established at the Second Ecumenical Council in 381. But even centuries later, we find a Unitarian like Thomas Jefferson complaining that Athanasius was the one who had ruined Christianity, turning it from a moral teaching into magical superstition. However, what could be more Egyptian than the idea that the King is God!

The next great doctrinal controversy involving Egypt had grave and enduring consequences for the Egyptian Church. At the Fourth Ecumenical Council at Chalcedon in 451 the doctrine was condemned that Christ had only one Nature. This was Monophysitism, from monê physis, "one nature," in Greek. Greek and Latin Orthodoxy would be that Christ had two Natures, human and divine. One Nature, however, was the position of the Patriarch Dioscorus of Alexandria, who was then deposed. But that was nowhere near the end of the matter. The Egyptians supported Dioscorus and Monophysitism, and their support soon translated into a national revival and a cultural, at least, revolt against the Imperial (the Roman Catholic) Church. The Egyptian Church now began using the spoken language of Egypt, later called Coptic, as its liturgical language, writing it in an adaptation of the Greek alphabet. This now preserved complete the latest stage of the Ancient Egyptian language, which in the 19th century became one of the keys to the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics. The Church then began appointing its own Patriarch. We thus get a Schism represented by the Monophysite Patriarch, the Coptic Patriarch, often called the Coptic Pope, opposed by the appointee of the Imperial Church, called the "Greek" or "Melkite" Patriarch.

Melkite or Greek Patriarchs of Alexandria
Timothy III	460-475, 477-482 d.482
Peter III	477, 482-489
John I	482 , d. 489
Athanasius II	489-496
John II	496-505
John III	505-516
Dioscorus II	516-517
Timothy IV	517-535
Theodosius I	535-536, d.566
[Gainas]	535, d.?
Paul	537-540, d.?
Zoilus	541-551, d.?
Apollinarius	551-569
John IV	569-579
[vacant]	579-581
St. Eulogius I	581-607
St. Theodore	607-609
St. John V	610-619
[vacant]	619-621
George I	621-631
Cyrus	631-643
Peter IV	643-651
[vacant]	651-727
Theodore II	Coadjutor, c.662
Peter V	Coadjutor, c.680
Peter VI	Coadjutor, c.691
Theophylactus	Coadjutor, c.695
Onopsus	Coadjutor, c.711
Cosmas I	727-768
Politianus	768-813
Eustatius	813-817
Christopher I	817-841
Sophronius I	841-860
Michael I	860-870
Michael II	870-903
[vacant]	903-907
Christodoulus	907-932
Eutychius	933-940
Sophronius II	941
Isaac	941-954
Job	954-960
[vacant]	960-963
Elias I	963-1000
St. Arsenius	1000-1010
Theophilus II	1010-1020
George II	1021-1052
Leontius	1052-1059
Alexander II	1059-1062
John VI	1062-1100?
Eulogius II	c.1110
Sabbas	c.1117
Cyril II	?
Theodosius II	?
Sophronius III	<1166-1171
Elias II	1171-1175
Eleutherius	1175-1180
Mark III	1180-1209
Nicholas I	1210-1243
Gregory I	1243-1263
Nicholas II	1263-1276
Athanasius III	1276-1316
Gregory II	1316-1354
Gregory III	1354-1366
Niphon	1366-1385
Mark IV	1385-1389
Nicholas III	1389-1398
Gregory IV	1398-1412
Nicholas IV	1412-1417
Athanasius IV	1417-1425
Mark V	1425-1435
Philotheus	1435-1459
Mark VI	1459-1484
Gregory V	1484-1486
Joachim	1486-1567
[vacant]	1567-1569
Silvester	1569-1590
Meletius I	1590-1601
Cyril III	1601-1620
Gerasimus I	1620-1636
Metrophanes	1636-1639
Nicephorus	1639-1645
Joannicius	1645-1657
Paisius	1657-1678, d.1681
Parthenius I	1678-1688
Gerasimus II	1688-1710, d.1714
Samuel	1710-1712, 1714-1723
Cosmas II	1712-1714, 1723-1736
Cosmas III	1737-1746
Matthew	1746-1766, d.1775
Cyprian	1766-1783
Gerasimus III	1783-1788
Parthenius II	1788-1805
Theophilus III	1805-1825
Hierotheus I	1825-1845
Artemius	1845-1847, d.1852
Hierotheus II	1847-1858
Callinicus	1858-1861, d.1889
Jacob	1861-1865
Nicanor	1866-1869
Sophronius IV	1870-1899
Photius	1900-1925
Meletius II	1926-1935
Nicholas V	1936-1939
Christopher II	1939-1966, d.1967
[vacant]	1966-1968
Nicholas VI	1968-1986
Parthenius III	1987-1996
Peter VII	1997-present

"Melkite" means "Royal" (compare Hebrew melekh and Arabic malik), i.e. "Imperial." Since the Melkite Patriarch had little popular support in Egypt, one might expect that the Arab Conquest in 640 would have ended the line; but it didn't. Both Patriarchates continue down to the present. Indeed, there have been no less than four "Patriarchs of Alexandria":

The original Coptic Patriarch, who has resided in Cairo since 960, when the city was founded by the Fatimid Caliphs (969). The Greek or Melchite Patriarch, given at right. The Latin Patriarch. In 1215, 1219, or thereabouts, during the Crusades, as at Constantinople, a Latin Church was created for Alexandria. In recent history, however, the titular Latin Patriarch lived in Rome, ruling through an Apostolic Vicar in Alexandria. The See fell vacant in 1954 and finally was simply abolished in 1964. The Coptic Catholic Patriarch. Despite the existence of a Latin Patriarch of Alexandria, in 1741 (or 1895, I see both dates) the Catholic Church organized a Coptic Counter-Church (the Coptic Catholic Church), which is like the Coptic Church in every way except that it accepts Roman doctrine and authority. Counter-Churches have been created by Rome for many Eastern Churches. They sometimes differ in curious details from the original Church, for instance that the Coptic Counter-Church uses the Gregorian Calendar rather than the Julian Calendar still used by the Copts. Where the Coptic New Year is usually September 11, as in 2002, the Counter-Church would observe it on August 29. The Coptic Catholic Patriarch has lived in Alexandria, at the Church of the Resurrenction, whose construction was funded by the Austrian Emperor Franz Josef and dedicated in 1902.

The Schism over the Council of Chalcedon may have helped the Arab Conquest, since there was little local support for the persecuting Empire. The Patriarch of Alexandria, who would have been Andronikos (with some opposition), is supposed to have said that it was the Will of God that Egypt should fall to the Arabs.

After the Conquest, conversion to Islâm and use of the Arabic language began to spread in Egypt. The Coptic language survived as a spoken language at least until the 17th century. Now it only survives as the liturgical language of the Church. Coptic Christians, however, have been leaving Egypt, in great part because of attacks from Muslim fanatics that have developed as the result of the recent increase in Islâmic militancy. Not long ago, Copts were 10% of the population of Egypt. Now they may be no more than 6%. A Coptic desk calendar I have for 1997 was printed in Brooklyn. It is largely in English but is partially bilingual in....Arabic.

When I was in Egypt in 1969, my tour group from Beirut was met at the El-Moallaka Church in Old Cairo by the Priest, Shenouda Hanna. I bought a book he had written, Who Are The Copts?, which he autographed. The Coptic Patriarch at the time was Kirellos VI. Now, since 1971, the Patriarch is Shenouda III, and I find myself wondering if this is Shenouda Hanna. There are many Coptic websites about the Patriarch, but I have not been able to find the biographical information that would clarify the issue.

Finding complete lists of these Patriarchs has not been easy. Fortunately, Bruce R. Gordon's Regnal Chronologies came through, as it often has, even though the Patriarchs are not really "regnal." Gordon has lists of Patriarchs for many other Eastern Churches, but they don't always seem to be clearly identified with their doctrinal and institutional affiliation.

One traditional duty of the Patriarchs of Alexandria was appointing the Archbishop and Primate of Ethiopia, the Abune or Abuna (Arabic for "Our Father"). The first such appointee was Frumentius, a Syrian who had been living at the Ethiopian court for some time and journeyed to Alexandria in order to ask for a Bishop to be appointed. Traditionally, it is supposed to have been St. Athanasius himself who then appointed Frumentius to the post. However, the known dates of Athanasius are a bit late for the likely date of Frumentius's trip. After the advent of Islam, communication between the (now Coptic) Patriarch and Ethiopia was interrupted; but in the 12th century, appointments were resumed. It was always an Egyptian Coptic monk who was appointed; and by the 20th century, Ethiopians were beginning to think that maybe it was time for an Ethiopian to be Primate of Ethiopia. Negotiations over this in 1929 still resulted in an Egyptian monk as Archbishop and Primate, but with four Ethiopians concecrated as Bishops. After World War II, an Ethiopian, Basilos, had already been elected Primate, and in 1950 the Coptic Patriarch recognized him. In 1959 the Coptic Patriarch recognized the Ethiopian Church as an autocephalous Patriarchate, although in communion, of course, with Alexandria.

In an ecumenical era, the doctrine of the Coptic Church has been subject to some rethinking. It has recently been brought to my attention that the Coptic, the Syrian Orthodox, and the Armenian Churches have rejected the term "Monophysite" and adopted the term "Miaphysite." The doctrinal difference that goes along with this, as I understand it, is that Jesus was both human and divine, as the Latin and Greek Churches agreed, but that these are united in One Nature. Now, this possibility goes all the way back to the original dispute. In the 5th century, Monophysites could be "Eutychian," that the One Nature of Jesus was entirely divine, or "Hesitant," that the One Nature was both human and divine. The latter could also be called "Severan" Monophysitism, after the deposed Patriarch of Antioch, Severus, who for some years led the Monophysite movement from exile in Egypt. Now, Jesus being both human divine was precisely what the Latin and Greek Churches meant by "two natures." But Monophysites thought that "two natures" implied Nestorianism. The "Hesitant" or "Severan" formula showed some promise of unifying the doctrine of the Churches, but historically that didn't happen. If the "Miaphysite" formula, although the modern version of this, has a similar promise of ecumenical unification, that's fine -- though I don't know how the Pope or the Patriarch of Constantinople have responded. Today, the Coptic, Syriac, and Armenian Orthodox Churches all like to deny that they were ever Monophysite, meaning Eutychian, and that somehow this was all a misunderstanding of the theology. I think this is more an issue for historians than for interested theologians to decide. Warren Threadgold (A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Standford University Press, 1997) says that while most Monophysites were Hesitant (p.99), Dioscorus himself was indeed Eutychian (p.96). Terminologically, one thing that I have to go on is the explicit statment of Father Shenouda Hanna, in the book cited above:

The Coptic Orthodoxy has clung from the very beginning to the doctrines of monophysitism and monothelitism, that is the one nature and one will of Jesus Christ. [op.cit. p.22]

Since this was published in 1967, my guess would be that it antedates the introduction of the term "Miaphysite." This term itself doesn't help in understanding the doctrine. "Monophysite" combines monos, "one, sole," with physis, while "Miaphysite" combines the independent word for "one" in the feminine gender (to agree with physis), mia. Between monos and mia there is a distinction that doesn't make a difference, though certainly such a terminological difference can be used to represent conceptual differences. For example, "monotheism" means belief in one God, while "henotheism," using the independent word for "one" in the masculine gender, henos, has been used to mean belief in many gods, where one in particular is superior to the others (e.g. Zeus in Greek religion). Thus, "Miaphysite" could be used, by definition, to mean absolutely anything. Now, I can understand the Copts and others being annoyed at terms from Greek and Latin Heresiology being applied to them, so "Miaphysite" accompanies a proprietary claim of self-description -- something very popular in ethnic identity movements. But if they think that "Monophysite" was improperty applied to them just because it always only meant the Eutychian doctrine, this is not true.

Latin Patriarchs of Alexandria

Patriarchal Index

Philosophy of History

Philosophy of Religion

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Copyright (c) 2001, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2008 Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D. All Rights Reserved

Primates of the Apostolic See of Antioch
St. Peter the Apostle	37/45-53
Euodius	c.53-c.68
St. Ignatius	c.68-107
Hero I	107-c.127
Cornelius	c.127-c.154
Eros/Heros II	c.154-c.169
Theophilus	c.169-182
Maximus I/Maximianus	182-191
Serapion	191-211/212
Ascelpiades/ Aslipiades	211/212- 218/220
Philetus	220-231
Zebinnus/ Zebinus/ Zenobius	231-237
St. Babylas	237-253
Fabius	253-256
Demetrius/ Demetrian	256-260
Amphilochius?	c.263
Paul of Samosata	260/267- 270/272
Domnus I/Dmonus	268-273
Timaeus	273-282
Cyril	283-303
Tyrannos/ Tyrannion	304-314
Vitalis/Vitalius	314-320
St. Philogonus/ Philogonius	320-323
Paulinus of Tyre	323-324
St. Eustathius	324-337
Paulinus?	c.332
Eulalius	5 months? 331-333
Euphronius	333-334
Philaclus/ Placentius	334-342
Stephanus I	342-344
Leontius	344-357
Eudoxius	358-359
Annias/ Ammianus	c.357
Euzoius/ Eudozius/ Eudoxius	360
	Patriarch of Constantinople, 360-370
St. Meletius	361-381
Meletian Schism, 361-401; 381, President of Council II, Constantinople I
Dorotheus?	rival, c.370
Paulinus	Papal rival, c.371
Vitalius?	rival, c.376
Flavian I	381-404
Porphyrus/ Porphyrius	404-412
Alexander	412-417
Theodotus	417-428
John I	428-442
Domnus II	442-449
PATRIARCHS OF ANTIOCH, 451
Maximus II	449-455
Basil	456-458
Acacius	458-461
Martyrius	461-465
Peter the Fuller	465-466, 476-488
Julian	466-476
John II	488-490
Stephanus II	490-495
Stephen III?	c.493
Callandion	495-496
John Codonatus?	c.495
Palladius	496-498
Flavian II	498-512
Severus of Antioch	512-518, d.538/546
deposed in schism, exiled in Egypt, recognized by Syrian Church
Greek Orthodox/Melkite Patriarchs of Antioch
Paul I/II	518-521
Euphrosius/ Euphrasius	521-526/528
Ephrem/ Ephraim of Amid	526/528-546
Domnus III	546-561
Anastasius the Sinaite	561-571, 593-599
Gregory I	571-594
Anastasius II	599-610
Gregory II	610-620
Anastasius III	620-628
Macedonius	628-640
Arab Conquest
George I	640-656
Macarius	656-681
Theophanes	681-687
Sebastian	687-690
George II	690-695
Alexander	695-702
vacant, 702-742
Stephen IV	742-744
Theophylact	744-751
Theodore	751-797
John IV	797-810
Job	810-826
Nicholas	826-834
Simeon	834-840
Elias	840-852
Theodosius I	852-860
Nicholas II	860-879
Michael	879-890
Zacharias	890-902
George III	902-917
Job II	917-939
Eustratius	939-960
Christopher	960-966
Theodorus II	966-977
Antioch recovered by Romania, 969
Agapius	977-995
John IV	995-1000
Nicholas III	1000-1003
Elias II	1003-1010
George Lascaris	1010-1015
Macarius the Virtuous	1015-1023
Eleutherius	1023-1028
Peter III	1028-1051
John VI/ Dionysus	1051-1062
Aemilian	1062-1075
Antioch falls to Turks
Theodosius II	1075-1084
Nicephorus	1084-1090
John VII	1090-1155
Antioch taken by Crusaders, 1098
John IX	1155-1159
Euthymius	1159-1164
Macarius	1164-1166
Athanasius I	1166-1180
Theodosius III	1180-1182
Elias III	1182-1184
Christopher II	1184-1185
Patriarchate was in exile at Constantinople
Theodore IV/Balsamon	1185-1199
Joachim	1199-1219
Dorotheus	1219-1245
Simeon II	1245-1268
Euthymius II	1268-1269
Antioch falls to Mamlûks, 1268; Patriarchate returned to Antioch
Theodosius IV	1269-1276
Theodosius V	1276-1285
Arsenius	1285-1293
Dionysius	1293-1308
Mark	1308-1342
Patriarchate transferred to Damascus, 1342
Ignatius II	1342-1386
Pachomius	1386-1393
Nilus	1393-1401
Michael III	1401-1410
Pachomius II	1410-1411
Joachim II	1411-1426
Mark III	1426-1436
Dorotheus II	1436-1454
Michael IV	1454-1476
Mark IV	1476
Joachim III	1476-1483
Gregory III	1483-1497
Dorotheus III	1497-1523
Michael V	1523-1541
Dorotheus IV	1541-1543
Joachim IV Ibn Juma	1543-1576
Michael VI Sabbagh	1577-1581
Joachim V	1581-1592
Joachim VI	1593-1604
Dorotheus V	1604-1611
Athanasius III Dabbas	1611-1619
Ignatius III Attiyah	1619-1631
Euthymius III	1635-1636
Euthymius IV	1636-1648
Michael III Zaim	1648-1672
Neophytos	1674-1684
Athanasius IV Dabbas	1686-1694
Cyril III Zaim	1694-1720
Athanasius IV Dabbas	1720-1724
Separation of the Melkites, Greek Patriarchs in Damascus
Sylvester	1724-1766
Philemon	1766-1767
Daniel	1767-1791
Euthymius	1792-1813
Seraphim	1813-1823
Methodius	1843-1859
Hierotheos	1850-1885
Gerasimos	1885-1891
Spyridon	1892-1898
Restoration of Arab Patriarchs
Meletius II Doumani	1899-1906
Gregory IV Haddad	1906-1928
Alexander III Tahan	1928-1958
Theodosius VI Abourjaily	1958-1970
Elias IV Muawad	1970-1979
Ignatius IV Hazim	1979-present

The list of the bishops of Antioch down to Cyril is given by Eusebius, the 4th century historian of the Church [The History of the Church, Penguin, 1965]. The rest of the list is from different websites. As with the Patriarchs of Jerusalem, the main list is commonly identified as "Greek Orthodox," but historically means the Melkite, i.e. Imperial, Church, which was in opposition to the Monophysite Patriarchs who rejected the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Today this line is self-identified as the "Antiochian Orthodox" Church, and the term "Melkite" is no longer used for it. The "Separation of the Melkites" in 1724 was a schism in the Church where a branch came into existence that entered into communion with Rome and is now called the "Melkite Greek Catholic" Church. The Greek Church was literally headed by Greeks until the "Restoration of the Arab Patriarchs" in 1899, when we get Arab, i.e. Syrian, instead of Greek Patriarchs. Antioch today is part of Turkey, separated from Syria by the French in 1939. The "Antiochian" Patriarch resides in Damascus.

Syriac Orthodox Patriarchs of Antioch
Sergius of Tella	544-546
vacant, 546-550
Paul II the Black of Alexandria	550-575
vacant, 575-581
Peter III of Raqqa	581-591
Julian I	591-595
Athanasius I Gammolo	595-631
John II of the Sedre	631-648
Theodore	649-667
Severius II bar Masqeh	667-681
Athanasius II	683-686
Julian II	686-708
Elias I	709-723
Athanasius III	724-740
Iwanis I	740-754
Euwanis I	754-?
Athanasius al-Sandali	?-758
George I	758-790
Joseph	790-792
Quryaqos of Takrit	793-817
Dionysius I of Tellmahreh	817-845
John III	846-873
Ignatius II	878-883
Theodosius Romanos of Takrit	887-896
Dionysius II	897-909
John IV Qurzahli	910-922
Baselius I	923-935
John V	936-953
Iwanis II	954-957
Dionysius III	958-961
Abraham I	962-963
John VI Sarigta	965-985
Athanasius IV of Salah	986-1002
John VII bar Abdun	1004-1033
Dionysius IV Yahya	1034-1044
vacant, 1044-1049
John VIII	1049-1057
Athanasius V	1058-1063
John IX bar Shushan	1063-1073
Baselius II	1074-1075
John Abdun	1075-1077
Dionysius V Lazaros	1077-1078
Iwanis III	1080-1082
Dionysius VI	1088-1090
Athanasius VI bar Khamoro	1091-1129
John X bar Mawdyono	1129-1137
Athanasius VII bar Qutreh	1138-1166
Michael I the Great	1166-1199
Athanasius VIII	1200-1207
John XI	1208-1220
Ignatius III David	1222-1252
John XII bar Madani	1252-1263
Ignatius IV Yeshu	1264-1282
Philoxenos I Nemrud	1283-1292
Michael II	1292-1312
Michael III Yeshu	1312-1349
Baselius III Gabriel	1349-1387
Philoxenos II the Writer	1387-1421
Baselius IV Shemun	1421-1444
Ignatius Behnam al-Hadli	1445-1454
Ignatius Khalaf	1455-1483
Ignatius John XIII	1483-1493
Ignatius Nuh of Lebanon	1493-1509
Ignatius Yeshu I	1509-1512
Ignatius Jacob I	1512-1517
Ignatius David I	1517-1520
Ignatius Abd-Allah I	1520-1557
Ignatius Nemet Allah I	1557-1576
Ignatius David II Shah	1576-1591
Ignatius Pilate I	1591-1597
Ignatius Hadayat Allah	1597-1639
Ignatius Simon I	1640-1659
Ignatius Yeshu II Qamsheh	1659-1662
Ignatius Abdul Masih I	1662-1686
Ignatius George II	1687-1708
Ignatius Isaac Azar	1709-1722
Ignatius Shukr Allah II	1722-1745
Ignatius George III	1745-1768
Ignatius George IV	1768-1781
Ignatius Matthew	1782-1817
Ignatius Yunan	1817-1818
Ignatius George V	1819-1837
Ignatius Elias II	1838-1847
Ignatius Jacob II	1847-1871
Ignatius Peter IV	1872-1894
Ignatius Abdul Masih II	1895-1905
Ignatius Abd Allah II	1906-1915
Ignatius Elias III	1917-1932
Ignatius Afram I Barsoum	1933-1957
Ignatius Jacob III	1957-1980
Ignatius Zakka Iwas	1980-present

My understanding is that there are at least five different lineages claiming to be the Patriarchs of Antioch, as follows, with the addition of the discontinued Latin Patriarchate. Two of these are Catholic Counter-Churches, created or recognized by the Vatican to duplicate the native "Schismatic" Churches in outward form, but agreeing with Rome in doctrine and in acknowledging the authority of the Pope.

Orthodox Melkite, as with the Melkite Church at Alexandria. This is the line often called "Greek Orthodox" as it is in conformity with the theology of the Patriarch of Constantinople, although, like many such Orthodox Churches, autocephalous i.e. autonomous. The Church today is self-characterized as the "Antiochian Orthodox" Church. "Melkite" is generally no longer used. The Patriarch actually resides in Damascus. Catholic Melkite, a Catholic Counter-Church for the Melkite one. However, this was not created by the Catholic Church but originated in a disputed election in 1724. In 1729 the losing candidate was recognized by the Pope as the Patriarch Cyril VI, who then entered into conformity with Roman doctrine and authority. Pope Gregory XVI (1831-1846) recognized Maxim III (1833-1855) as Patriarch of Alexandria and Jerusalem as well as Antioch. Thus, even today the Church is self-styled the "Melkite Greek Catholic Patriarchate of Antioch and all the East, of Alexandria, and of Jerusalem." Syriac Orthodox (or "Syrian," a term now avoided to prevent confusion with the modern state of Syria, though historically the Chruch was indeed associated with geographical Syria). This is often called the "Jacobite" Church, a name that comes from Jacob Baradaeus (Yaqub bar-Addai), who was made Bishop of Edessa in 542 and then promoted Monophysite theology. Previously the Monophysite cause was championed by the Patriarch Severus of Antioch, who had been deposed (518) but then led the movement from exile in Egypt. He died either in 538 or 546, and so possibly was off the scene when Jacob Baradaeus became active -- where his activity included travelling around through Egypt and Syria ordaining Monophysite priests. The first of the line of Monophysite Patriarchs of Antioch, Sergius of Tella, appears soon afterwards (544) The installation of Jacob was on the recommendation of the Monophysite Ghassanid ruler al-Harith V to the Empress Theodora. The Monophysite sympathies of Theordora thus fostered the very existence of the Syrian Orthodox Church. Edessa came to be the center of Syrian Orthodox intellectual life, long remained an important city in the Middle Ages, and was one of the early Crusader States. The ancient language of Edessa was a dialect of Eastern Syriac and, as Classical Syriac, became the intermediary of transation of Greek philosophy ultimately into Arabic. Edessa today is the city of Urfa in Turkey. The large Syriac Christian population of the area was hit by the Turkish attacks on Armenians and other Christians during World War I and today has dwindled to a small remant. Similarly, there are Syriac Orthodox Christians in Iraq who have also suffered from Islamist and nationalistic attacks. Thus, the largest Syriac Orthodox communities are in the United States, the Netherlands, and other Western countries. Syrian Catholic, the Catholic Counter-Church to the Orthodox one, recognized by Rome in 1783. Maronite. The Maronite Patriarch in Lebanon is styled the Patriarch of Antioch. The Church is now doctrinally in union with Rome, avoiding the need for a Catholic Counter-Church. Latin. The Latin Patriarchate, as at Constantinople, Jerusalem, and Alexandria, was created during the Crusades, in this case in 1098 by the first Prince of Antioch. It fell vacant in 1953, and was formally abolished, like Alexandria, in 1964.

The language of Roman Syria and Palestine was a descendant of Aramaic. This is usually still called "Aramaic" by linguists and anthropologists but "Syriac" by historians. After the Schism over Chalcedon, Syriac replaced Greek as the liturgical language of the local Church. This grew into something of larger historical importance, as various books of Greek philosophy, as well as religious works, were translated into the language. Syriac translation of Greek philosophers then became models and stepping stones to the Arabic translations of the 9th century, usually carried out by Syriac speakers who learned Greek and Arabic. The dialect of Syria proper, Western Syriac, only barely survives in three villages near Damascus. Interestingly, we thus see that the Syrian linguistic and religious boundaries are different, with the former west of Edessa and the later East of it. The cultural and religious boundary, indeed, reflects that of the Late Roman Empire. The map below right shows the contrasting boundaries.

Antioch is named after the second monarch of the Hellenistic Seleucid Dynasty, Antiochus I Soter. It is now a little hard to recapture the sense that it used to be the principal city of Syria (the third largest city of the Roman Empire, after Rome and Alexandria) right down to when it was taken by the Mamlûks in 1268. After that, Damascus quickly grew to dominance, and the Patriarchate reflects this when its seat was transferred there in 1342.

The Schism between the Imperial and Monophysite Churches is delayed a few years after Chalcedon. The Patriarch Severus was deposed in 518 and exiled to Egypt, but he retained the loyalty of most of the local Church, which elected a new Patriarch, Sergius of Tella, to succeed him -- though, as noted, active leadership was by then largely in the hands of Jacob Baradaeus. The area soon becomes troubled with war. In 540, Shah Khusro I of Persia sacked Antioch, while the Roman army was away fighting in Italy. This victory was commemorated with the construction of the Arch of Ctesiphon, the greatest suriving monument of Sassanid Persia. The Persians were back in 611, and by 613 had conquered all of Syria. The Emperor Heraclius defeated them with an invasion of Persia itself, and all the Persian conquests were restored in 628. The respite was brief. The Arabs secured all of Syria by 640. This abruptly introduced religious and cultural changes unlike any seen in Antioch since the city was founded by the Seleucids. Indeed, although Antioch remained the principal city of the area for a while, it was never the home of an Islamic state, like Damascus or nearby Aleppo.

Maronite Patriarchs of Lebanon
St. Youhanna/ John Maron I	d.410
Qorush/Cyrrhus/Cyr
Gebrael/Gabriel I
Youhanna/ John Maron II	Patriarch, 687
Youhanna/John I ?
Gregorius/Gregory I
Estephanos/Stephen I
Marcus/Mark
Eusebius
Youhanna/ John I/II	896
Yeshua/Joshua I
Daoud/David I
Gregorius/Gregory II ?
Theofelictus/ Theofelix/Habib
Yeshua/Joshua II
Domitius/ Dumit/Dumith
Isshak/Isaac
Youhanna/John II/III
Semaan/Simeon/Simon I /Chamoun I
Gregory II ?
Ermea/Jeremiah ?
Youhanna/John III/IV ?
Chamoun II ?
Chamoun III ?
Joseph El Gergessi	1110-1120
Peter I	1121-1130
Gregory of Halate	1130-1141
Jacob of Ramate	1141-1151
John III	1151-1154
Peter II	1154-1173
Peter of Lehfed	1173-1199
Jeremiah of Amshit	1199-1230
Daniel of Shamat	1230-1239
John of Jaje	1239-1245
Simon II	1245-1277
Daniel of Hadshit	1278-1282
Jeremiah of Dmalsa	1282-1297
Simon III	1297-1339
John IV	1339-1357
Gabriel of Hjula	1357-1367
John V	1367-1404
John of Jaje	1440-1445
Jacob of Hadeth	1445-1468
Joseph of Hadeth	1468-1492
Symeon of Hadeth	1492-1524
Moussa Akari of Barida	1524-1567
Michael Rizzi of Bkoufa	1567-1581
Sarkis Rizzi of Bkoufa	1581-1596
Union with Rome, 1584
Joseph Rizzi of Bkoufa	1596-1608
John Maklouf of Ehden	1608-1633
George Omaira of Ehden	1633-1644
Joseph Halib of Akoura	1644-1648
John Bawab of Safra	1648-1656
George Rizkallah of Bseb'el	1656-1670
Stephen Douaihy of Ehden	1670-1704
briel of Blaouza	1704-1705
Jacob Awad of Hasroun	1705-1733
Joseph Dergham Khazen of Ghosta	1733-1742
Symeon Awad of Hasroun	1743-1756
Toubia El Khazen of Bekaata Kanaan	1756-1766
Joseph Stephan of Ghosta	1766-1793
Michael Fadel of Beirut	1793-1795
Philip Gemayel of Bikfaya	1795-1796
Joseph Tyan of Beirut	1796-1808
John Helou of Ghosta	1808-1823
Youssef Hobaish of Sahel Alma	1823-1845
Youssef El Khazen of Ajaltoun	1845-1854
Boulos Massad of Ashkout	1854-1890
Hanna El Hajj of Dlebta	1890-1898
Elias Hoayek of Hilta	1898-1931
Antoun Arida of Bsharri	1931-1955
Boulos Meoushi of Jezzine	1955-1975
Anthony Khoraish of Ain Ibl	1975-1986
Nasrallah Sfeir of Reyfoun	1986-Present

Unlike the other cities of Syria, however, Antioch returned more than once to Christian control. In 969, the Emperor Nicephorus II Phocus, riding on the reviving fortunes of Romania, recovered the city. It remained Roman for a good century, but then fell to the Seljuk Turks in the aftermath of the disastrous defeat at Manzikert in 1071. This catastrophe, however, set off a response -- the Crusades.

Antioch was the scene of one of the most formative events of the First Crusade. It was the greatest obstacle on the way to Jerusalem. Arriving in October 1097, the Crusaders did not get into the city until 3 June 1098. They were immediately beseiged in turn by Kerbuqua, Atabeg of Mosul. This looked like the end of the Crusade. However, the Franks were heartened by a vision that led to the discovery of the Holy Lance, the weapon that had pierced the side of Christ. They were thus inspired to sortee against the Atabeg's army, on 28 June 1098, and won a complete victory. In January 1099 Bohemond of Apulia was left as Prince of Antioch, and the rest of the Crusaders left for Jerusalem. Antioch remained a Crusader State until 1268.

When the Mamlûks took Antioch in that year, they largely destroyed the city, so that it could not again become a Christian foothold. They need not have worried, since no Christian power would come close again for centuries. Antioch became a minor city, eclipsed by Aleppo and Damascus.

A Christian power, however, did eventually determine its modern fate. When France occupied Syria as a League of Nations Mandate in 1920, they did so against active opposition, and during their tenure had to deal with violent resistance. It may have simply been a kind of anti-nationalist revenge that in 1939 France ceded Antioch and Alexandretta to Turkey. The cities continue under Turkish sovereignty, as Antakya and Iskenderun.

Melkite Greek Catholic Patriarchs of Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria
Cyril VI Tanas	1724-1759
Athanasius IV Jawhar	1759-1760, 1765-1768, 1788-1794
Maximos II Hakim	1760-1761
Theodosius V Dahan	1761-1788
Cyril VII Siaj	1794-1796
Agapius II Matar	1796-1812
Ignatius IV Sarruf	1812
Athanasius V Matar	1813-1814
Macarius IV Tawil	1814-1815
Ignatius V Qattan	1816-1833
Maxim III Mazlum	1833-1855
Clement Bahouth	1856-1864
Gregory II Youssef- Sayur	1864-1897
Peter IV Jaraijiry	1898-1902
Cyril VIII Jaha	1902-1916
Vacant, 1916-1919
Demetrius I Qadi	1919-1925
Cyril IX Moghabghab	1925-1947
Maximos IV Cardinal Saïgh	1947-1967
Maximos V Hakim	1967-2000
Gregory III Laham	2000- Present

 
When I visited Antioch in 1970, I walked out of town to the cave Church traditionally associated with St. Peter. The people working on the farms along the way seemed to be speaking Arabic, even though everyone in the city itself appeared to be Turkish. I have not seen any information about the ethnic composition of the city in 1939, but the process of Turkification seems far advanced. Meanwhile, I am unware of which, if any, of the Christian Patriarchates of Antioch are actually resident in the city, or what kind of Christian population survives at all. The large Syriac Othrodox population of Turkey had mainly been centered to the east, around Edessa (Urfa) and Diyarbakir; but beginning in World War I, with attacks on them as well as on Armenians and Assyrians, most such Christians have fled the area.

A recent controversy of note in Turkey has been over the Syriac Orthodox Mor Gabriel Monastery, where a government land resurvey and hostile neighboring Muslim villagers have threatened the monastery, founded in 397 AD, with the loss of half of its land. Since local Christians have been leaving the area for decades, few remain, and the monastery itself is down to three monks and twleve nuns [cf. The Wall Street Journal, March 7-8, 2009, p.A8]. The Turkish government is caught between the attraction of tourism and even Christian return, with economic benefits, and the Islamists, who would just as soon drive all non-Muslims out of the area, if not out of Turkey altogether, regardless of the consequences. As a land dispute, the matter has ended up in the Turkish courts, which have shown some reluctance to get drawn in. With observers and diplomats from the EU and international Christian and human rights organizations present, the courts are at least aware that they operate in a spotlight, with sensitive politcal issues on the line.

A new development in Syriac Orthodox doctrine, the introduction of the term "Miaphysite," is addressed under the treatment of the Coptic Church.

The Maronites began with a proposal in the Christological controversies of the early Church. This was Monotheletism, the idea that Jesus had two natures, thus conforming to Orthodoxy, but only one Will, intended as a concession to Monophysitism. Although the matter is poorly attested, this was supposed to have been the proposal of the monk Maron. The Emperor Heraclius briefly got this accepted as Orthodox, but it was eventually rejected. This put the Maronites in conflict with the Imperial Church, but they were already on the outs with the majority Monophysities of Syria. By the end of the 5th century, long before Heraclius, Maronites were already moving for refuge to Mount Lebanon, also finding converts among the locals.

The early history of the Maronite Patriarchate is very obscure, with few dates and even uncertainty about the existence or identity of many Patriarchs. Indeed, it is not clear just when the notion would have arisen that the Maronite primate was supposed to be a Patriarch (of the Apostolic See of Antioch) at all.

Names that do not occur on all lists are followed by question marks, and the numbering of subsequent Maronite Patriarchs depends on which individuals are accepted as historical. It even looks like the original Maron, in the 5th century, is sometimes confused with the later Maron, after the Arab conquest in the 7th century, who became the first Patriarch -- or perhaps it is not a confusion. The first secure date and uncontroversial list of Patriarchs appears to begin in 1110, which significantly is soon after the arrival of the Crusaders in 1098. By then, the Lebanese had largely ceased speaking Aramaic and, with Muslim neighbors, adopted Arabic. However, the Church sometimes still wrote Arabic in the Western Syriac alphabet, a style call Karshûnî.

During the life of Outremer and after, between 1182 and 1584 the Maronites negotiated full doctrinal union with the Roman Catholic Church, while the Patriarch retained autocephalous control of his Church. The present Patriarch, Nasrallah Sfeir, is the third one to also be a Cardinal of the Catholic Church.

Thus, the last Christological heresy, still surviving institutionally, is thus long gone doctrinally.

For a brief moment, the Shihâbî Amîrs of Lebanon, 1697-1842, led the Maronites to Lebanese autonomy under the Ottoman Empire and almost achieved independence. Although France was sympathetic with this, British foreign policy, which aimed to maintain Turkey as a buffer against Russia, turned against it. Maronite Christians still form the major Christian community of the Republic of Lebanon, and the Lebanese Maronite Patriarch still regards himself as the proper Patriarch of Antioch. While the Modern Republic of Lebanon was created by France in such a way as to ensure control by the Maronites, the greater birth rate of Muslims upset the balance and the Lebanese Civil War of the 1970's destroyed the agreement between the confessional communities that had previously preserved the peace and allowed the country to prosper. The community with the greatest birth rate, and the least prosperity, the Shiites, are now the most radicalized, still the least prosperous, and the most inclined to harbor terrorists and provoke Israel. In line with the ideology of Irân, and supplied with weapons from Irân through Syria, their focus is Apocalyptic, on the Jihâd rather than on triffles like economic development.

There are several lists of the Maronite Patriarchs on line. One list with features on recent Patriarchs is at the Kobayat website.

Latin Patriarchs of Antioch

Patriarchal Index

Philosophy of History

Philosophy of Religion

Home Page

Copyright (c) 2004, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009 Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D. All Rights Reserved

Primates of the Apostolic See of Jerusalem
Jacob/Ya'akov/ James the Brother of Jesus	c.62
Jewish War, 66-73; Jerusalem falls to Romans, Temple destroyed, 70
Symeon/Simon I	c.70-99
Ioustos/Judas/ Justus I	99-111
Zakheos/Zakhaios/ Zacchaeus	111-117
Tobias
Beniamin/Veniamin/ Benjamin I
John/Ioannis I	117-134
Matthew/Matthias I
Phillip
Senekas/Seneca
Ioustos/Justus II
Levis/Levy/Levi
Efrem/Efraim/Ephres
Joseph I
Judas
Revolt of Bar Kokhba, destruction of Jerusalem, 132-135
Marcus/Markos/ Mark	134-162
Cassianos/ Kassianos/ Cassian
Pouplios/Publius
Maximus I
Ioulianos/Julian I
Gaios/Gaius I
Simmahos/ Symmachus
Gaios/Gaius II
Ioulianos/Oialis/ Julian II	162-185
Capion/Kapion/ Capito
Maximus II
Antonios/Antoninus
Oualis/Oialis/ Valens
Dolihianos/Dolichian
Narkissos/ Narcissus II	185-211
Dios?
Germanion?
Gordios?
Alexander	211-249
Mazabanis/ Mazabanes	249-260
Imeneos/Ymenaios/ Hymenaeus	260-276
Zamvdas/Zambdas/ Zabdas	276-283
Ermon/Hermo	283-314
Makarios I	314-333
Maximos III	333-348
Cyrill/Cyrillos I	350-386
John/Ioannis II	386-417
Praulios/Praylios	417-422
Patriarchs of Jerusalem, 451
Iouvenalios	422-458
Anastasios I	458-478
Martyrios	478-486
Salloustios	486-494
Elias/Helliah I	494-516
John III	516-524
Peter	524-552
Makarios II	552, 564-575
Eustathios/Efstohios	552-594
John IV	575-594
Amos	594-601
Isaac/Isaakios	601-609
Zacharias/Zachary	609-632
Jerusalem under the Persians, 614-628
Modestos	632-634
Sofronios I	634-638
Jerusalem falls to the Arabs, 636
Anastasios II	?-706
John V	706-735
Theodore	745-770
Elias/Helliah II	770-797
George	797-807
Thomas I	807-820
Basil/Vasillios	820-838
John VI	838-842
Sergios I	842-844
Solomon	855-860
Theodosios	862-878
Elias/Helliah III	878-907
Sergios II	908-911
Leontios I	912-929
Athanasios I	929-937
Christodoulos	937-?
Agathon	964-966
John VII	964-966
Christodoulos II	966-969
Thomas II	969-978
Joseph II	980-983
Orestis	983-1005
Theophilos I	1012-1020
Nikiphoros I	1020-1084
Ioannikios	1020-1084
Sofronios II	1020-1084
Euthimios/ Efthymios I	1084
Simon/Symeon II	1084-1106
Jerusalem falls to the First Crusade, 1099
Savvas	1106-1156
John VIII	1106-1156
Nicolas/Nicholaus	1106-1156
John IX	1156-1166
Nikiforos II	1166-1170
Leontios/Leodios II	1170-1190
Jerusalem falls to Saladin, 1187
Dositheos I	?-1191
Markos I?
Markos II	1191-?
Euthimios II	1223
Athanasios II	1224-1236
Jerusalem ceded by Ayyubids, 1229
Sofronios III	1236-1298
Battle of La Forbie, Jerusalem lost to Ayyubids, 1244
Gregory I
Thadaios	1298
Athanasios III	1313-1314
Gregory II	1322
Lazarus	1334-1368
Arsenios	1344
Dorotheos I	1376-1417
Theophilos II	1417-1424
Theophanis I	1424-1431
Ioakim/Johakim	1431-?
Theophanis II	1450
Athanasios IV	1452-?
Jacob II	1460
Abraham	1468
Gregory III	1468-1493
Markos III	1503
Dorotheos II	1505-1537
Ottoman Turkish occupation, 1517
Germanos	1537-1579
Sophronios IV	1579-1608
Theophanis III	1608-1644
Paissios	1645-1660
Nektarios	1660-1669
Dositheos II	1669-1707
Chrysanthos/ Hrisanthos	1707-1731
Meletios	1731-1737
Parthenios	1737-1766
Efarim/Efraim II	1766-1771
Sophronios V	1771-1775
Abramios/Evramios	1775-1787
Prokopios	1787-1788
Anthimos	1788-1808
Polikarpos	1808-1827
Athanasios V	1827-1845
Cyrill/Cyrillos II	1845-1872
Prokopios II	1872-1875
Ierotheos	1875-1882
Nikodimos	1883-1890
Gerassimos	1891-1897
Damianos	1897-1931
British occupation, 1918
Timotheos	1935-1955
Annexed by Jordan, 1948
Benedict	1957-1980
Annexed by Israel, 1967
Diodoros	1981-2000
Eirineos/Irinaios	2001-present

As is often noted, Jerusalem is sacred to three religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. This distinguishes it from the other Christian Patriarchates -- Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria -- which are of no particular significance to Judaism or Islam. Jerusalem could be considered the oldest Christian Patriarchate. Christianity certainly began there and the first leaders of the religion lived there. However, the ideas of a Church, of a hierarchy, of priests, and of a Patriarchate are all later developments. And then the Christian community, such as it was, disappeared in the chaos of the Jewish War. The growing root of Christianity was transferred elsewhere by leaders like St. Paul. The destruction of the Temple and the later annihilation of the whole city after the revolt in 135 probably helped destroy the base of the community who would have kept Christianity as a sect of Judaism. Instead, it grew into a heresy of Judaism and then a separate religion, spreading among Gentiles freed by Paul from the strictures of Jewish Law. Meanwhile, Jerusalem was rebuilt as a Roman city, Aelia Capitolina -- Jews were prohibited from entering except once a year to visit the Wailing Wall, believed to be the only remaining part of Solomon's Temple.

The numbers on the map of Jerusalem refer to the "Stations of the Cross," the route that Jesus took from his condemnation to the Crucifixion and burial. These are (1) the place of his condemnation by Pilate, (2) where he receives the Cross, (3) where he fell the first time, (4) where he met his mother, (5) where Simon of Cyrene took the Cross, (6) where Veronica wiped his face, (7) where he fell the second time, (8) where he met the women of Jerusalem, and (9) where he fell the third time. The 7th Station is actually the first one in the Christian rather than the Moselm Quarter of the City. The Stations after the 9th are all within the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. (10) Where Jesus was stripped of his clothes, (11) where he was nailed to the Cross, (12) where he died on the Cross, (13) where he was taken down, and (14) where he was laid in the tomb. Where the condemnation is thought to have taken place may well be in error, and many of the events along the way are not in the Gospels but a matter of local tradition. We see them all played out in Mel Gibson's The Passion of the Christ.

Armenian Patriarchs of Jerusalem
Abraham	638-669
Krikor Yetesatzi	669-696
Kevork	696-708
Mgrdich	708-730
Hovhannes	730-758
Stepanos	758-774
Yeghia	774-797
Abraham	885-909
Krikor	981-1006
Arsen	1006-1038
Mesrob	1008
Simeon	1090-1109
Movses	1109-1133
Esayee	1133-1152
Sahag	1152-1180
Abraham of Jerusalem	1180-1191
Minas	1191-1205
Abraham	1215-1218
Arakel	1218-1230
Hovhannes	1230-1238
Garabed of Jerusalem	1238-1254
Hagopos	1254-1281
Sarkis	1281-1313
Theodore	1313-1316
David	1316-1321
Boghos	1321-1323
Vartan Areveltzi	1323-1332
Hovhannes Josleen	1332-1341
Parsegh	1341-1356
Garabed	1349
Krikor, Giragos, coadjutor	1356-1363
Mgrdich	1363-1378
Hovhannes Lehatzee	1378-1386
Krikor of Egypt	1386-1391
Esayee	1391-1394
Sarkis	1394-1415
Mardiros, coadjutor	1399
Mesrob, coadjutor	1402
Boghos Karnetzi	1415-1419
Mardiros of Egypt	1419-1430
Minas, coadjutor	1426
Esayee	1430-1431
Hovhannes	1431-1441
Muron	1436-1437
Abraham Missirtzee	1441-1454
Mesrob	1454-1461
Bedros	1461-1476
Mgrdich Elovtzee	1476-1479
Abraham Pereeahtzee	1497-1485
Hovhannes Missirtzee	1485-1491
Mardiros Broosatzee	1491-1501
Bedros	1501-1507
Sarkis	1507-1517
Hovhannes	1517-1522
Theodore (Asdvadzadoor Merdeentzee)	1532-1542, 1550-1551
Pilibos	1542-1550
Antreas Merdeentzee	1551-83
David Merdeentzee	1583-1613
Krikor Kantzagehtzee	1613-1645
Theodore (Asdvadzadoor Daronetzee)	1645-1664, 1665-1666
Yeghiazar Hromglayetzee, coadjutor	1664-1665
Yeghiazar	1666-1668, 1670-1677
Theodore (Asdvadzadoor)	1668-1670
Mardiros Khrimtzi	1677-1680, 1681-1683
Hovhannes Amasyatzee	1680
Lay Locum Tenens	1683-1684
Hovhannes Bolsetzi	1684-1697
Simeon	1688-1691
Minas Hamtetzi, Kaloosd Hetoontzi, coadjutor	1697-1704
Krikor, coadjutor, Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople	1704-1715
Krikor Shiravantzee, Chainbearer	1715-1749
Hagop Nalian	1749-1752, resigned
Teotoros	1752-1761
Garabed Tantchagetzee	1761-1768
Boghos Vanetzee	1768-1775
Hovhannes Kanapertzee	1775-1793
Bedros Yevtogeeyatzee	1793-1800
Teodoros Vanetzi	1800-1818
Kapriel Neegomeetatzee	1818-1840
Boghos Atreeunoobolsetzi	1824-1847
Zakaria Gopetzi	1840-1846
Giragos of Jerusalem	1846-1850
Hovhannes of Smyrna	1850-1860
Vertanes Locum Tenens	1860-1864
Esayee of Talas	1864-1885
Yeremya Der Sahagian	1885-1889
Harootiun Vehabedian	1889-1910
Yeghishe Tourian	1921-1929
Torkom Koushagian	1929-1939
Mesrob Nishanian	1939-1944
Guregh Israelian	1944-1949
Tiran Nersoyan	1957-1958, unconsecrated
Yeghishe Derderian	1960-1990
Torkom Manoogian	1990-present

There has been an Armenian Patriarch in Jerusalem since shortly after the Islamic Conquest (636).

This joins three other Patriarchs of Jerusalem:

Greek Orthodox or Melkite, the main line we see at left here. Greek Catholic, the Catholic Counter- Church to the Orthodox one. It is unclear to me whether this is actually identical to the Greek Catholic Patriarch of Antioch, who is also styled the Patriarch of Jerusalem, or something else. Latin, established during the Crusades. Armenian, which is listed at right. In fact there are two other "Patriarchates" in Jerusalem: Coptic. Ethiopian.

Neither of these latter two Patriarchates, however, has an actual Patriarch. It would be odd if the Ethiopians did, when the Primate of Ethiopia himself did not become a Patriarch until 1959 -- previously the Ethiopian Church was subordinate to the Coptic Patriarch. Either way, the Ethiopian presence in Jerusalem seems extraordinary. There is even a small Ethiopian monastary on the roof of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

The parts of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre are the province of different sects, as defined by the Status Quo decree issued by the Ottoman Sultân in 1852. Those involved are the Greeks, Catholics, Armenians, Copts, Ethiopians, and Syrians. The Syrians, i.e. the Syrian Orthodox, are the only ones not associated with a "Patriarchate" of Jerusalem -- their church in Jerusalem is St. Mark's. Disputes over jurisdiction in the Church led to one of the most extraordinary provisions:  The keys to the Church are in the charge of a particular Muslim family.

The 4th century historian of the Church, Eusebius, gives a list of bishops of Jerusalem down to Hermo. There is no way of knowing what evidence, traditions, or documents this may have been based on. There is certainly no independent evidence for it, but no lack of skepticism now about the historicity or possibility of such a thing. Apostolic succession and a lineage of transmission were, again, later conceptions and aspirations. Fictitious lines of transmission are not unknown even in Buddhism.

As the Church achieved toleration and then privileged status in the Roman Empire, the system of recognized Patriarchates developed. Jerusalem was certain to come in for special attention. The Emperor Constantine initiated the identification of the sites of the Crucification and burial of Jesus, and the building of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (dedicated 335) over them. Constantine's mother, the eighty-year-old St. Helena, is supposed to have been involved in identifying the sites, on a pilgrimage in 325 or 326, and was also believed to have discovered the actual Cross of the Crucifixion. She was said to have returned to Italy with various relics, including the Titulus Crucis, the plaque nailed to the Cross that identified Jesus as the "King of the Jews." This still exists where Helena reportedly deposited it, in the Church of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme. Argument continues about its antiquity.

One of the most important inhabitants of Jerusalem, or actually of the nearby Bethlehem, in the following period was St. Jerome (Eusebius Hieronymus), who had been secretary to the Pope, St. Damasus, who charged him to make a Latin translation of the Bible. After Damasus' death in 384, Jerome retired to Palestine to do this. It is hard to tell how much of the Vulgate is Jerome's original translation and how much he worked over from previous ones, but he completed the job. For the Old Testament, having learned Hebrew, Jerome could do his work from the original text, not just relying on the Greek translation, the Septuagint. Jerome is still regarded as one of the Doctors (i.e. Teachers) of the Catholic Church.

The first great event in the Mediaeval troubles of Jerusalem was the taking of the city by the Sassanid Persians in 614. The True Cross was removed from the Church of the Holy Sepulchre by Shah Khusro II. When the Emperor Heraclius defeated the Persians and Khusro was assassinated in 628, the Cross was returned. After a display in Constantinople, it was restored to Jerusalem in 629. The story is that Heraclius wanted to carry the Cross himself, but found it too heavy. The Patriarch of Jerusalem, Zacharias, suggested that the Emperor lay aside his Imperial Crown and robes. When he did so, the Cross became light enough to carry.

This moment of triumph was doomed to be brief. In 636 a new and unexpected, almost unbelievable enemy appeared, the Arab army of Islam. Heraclius was defeated at the Battle of the Yarmuk and Jerusalem was occupied by the Caliph Omar. The consequences of this event echo down to the present day in undiminished force. Omar himself, however, was kind and magnanimus. When the Call to Prayer came as he was actually being shown the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the Patriarch invited him to pray in the Church. Omar declined, saying that if he prayed there, "The Believers would come," and take over the Church as a site hallowed by the Caliph. So Omar went across the street to pray, where, predictably, the Mosque of Omar was subsequently built.

Latin Patriarchs of Jerusalem
Arnulf of Chocques	1099, 1112-1118
Dagobert of Pisa	1099-1102, 1102-1107
Ehremar	1102
Ghibbelin of Arles	1107-1112
Garmond of Picquigny	1119-1128
Stephen	1128-1130
William I of Malines	1130-1145
Fulk	1146-1157
Amalric	1157-1180
Heraclius	1180-1191
Jerusalem lost in 1187; seat of the Patriarch moved to Acre; Vacant, 1191-1194
Aymar the Monk	1194-1202
Soffred	1202-1204
Albert Avogadro	1204-1214
Raoul of Merencourt	1214-1225
Gerald of Lausanne	1225-1238
Vacant, 1238-1240
Robert of Nantes	1240-1254
Jacques Pantaléon	1255-1261
	Pope Urban IV, 1261-1265
William II of Agen	1261-1270
Thomas Agni of Cosenza	1271-1277
John of Versailles	1278-1279
Elijah	1279-1287
Nicholas of Hanapes	1288-1294
Acre lost, moved to Cyprus, 1291; moved to Rome after 1374; only honorary patriarchs until 1847
Antony Beck	1306-1311
	Bishop of Durham, England, from 1284-1310
The Grand Masters of the Knights of the Holy Sepulchre, 1342-1572
Gian Antonio Facchinetti de Nuce	1572-1591
	Pope Innocent IX, 1591-1592
Augustus Foscolo	1830-1847
Return to Jerusalem, 1847
Joseph Valerga	1847-1872
Vincent Braco	1872-1889
Latin patriarchate hierarchy re-established, 1889
Luigi Piavi	1889-1905
Vacant, 1905-1907
Filippo Camassei	1907-1919
Luigi Balassina	1920-1947
Vacant, 1947-1949
Alberto Gori	1949-1970
Giacomo Giuseppi Beltritti	1970-1987
Michel Sabah	1987-present

Today other Islamic monuments, like the al-Aqsa Mosque, are sometimes confused with the Mosque of Omar. The most conspicuous Islamic structure is still the Dome of the Rock, on the center of the Temple Mount, which was built by the Omayyad Caliph 'Abd al-Malik (685-705). This was built over a rock from which, in a dream, the Prophet Muh.ammad is supposed to have ascended to heaven. This makes Jerusalem the third holiest city of Islam, after Mecca and Medina.

It would be many years before Christian forces would return to Jerusalem. The Macedonian Roman Emperors, after retaking Antioch (969), entered Palestine and came close, but were not able to secure anything permanent or assault the city. It remained just out of reach.

A new era arrived for Jerusalem with the Crusades. The Emperor Alexius Comnenus, with the Turks overrunning Anatolia, appealed for help from the West. Help arrived, with only marginal interest in the Turks, but bent on recovering Jerusalem itself, 663 years after the original Islamic Conquest. The City was taken, amid scenes of indiscriminate slaughter. After the diplomatic niceties that had developed in the Middle East, this was regarded as nearly as appalling as it has seemed more recently. The Crusaders, indeed, by comparison with contemporary Greeks or Arabs, were barbarians. In an era when Islamic terrorists blow up children with suicide bombs, however, judging the Crusaders too harshly seems a little anachronistic and disproportionate. Other objections, that the Crusades represent some kind of Western "imperialism," gloss over the question of what justified the original Islamic Conquest in the first place. Of course, nothing did. The Arabs had no moral or historical claims on the Levant, Iraq, Iran, or Egypt. Harsh judgments about the Crusaders 900 years ago, while winking at, or even supporting, Terrorists today, gives us a good example of moralistic relativism.

With the foundation of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, we get a new Patriarchate at Jerusalem. The Greek/Melkite Patriarch was regarded as a Schismatic by the Franks, and we get a new Latin/Catholic Patriarch in communion with Rome. Although the Latin Patriarch retreated with the declining fortunes of the Crusaders, to Acre and then Cyprus, and finally all the way to Rome after 1374, the idea was maintained, and a Latin Patriarch returned to Jerusalem in 1847.

After the Ayyubids, Mamluks, and Ottomans ruled Palestine and Jerusalem, the city's sleep of ages ended in 1918. General Allenby arrived with the British Army, driving the Turks before him. Allenby entered the city, as we see, on foot. A Christian power now secured the city for the first time since 1244. The British, however, although with a phlegmatic kind of pious interest in the city, were no Crusaders. Far from securing the Holy Places for Christendom, the British arrived burdened with promises to allow the creation of a Jewish National Home in Palestine. Conflicting promises and reassurances to the Arabs prepared the ground for one of the most bitter, durable, and dangerous conflicts of the 20th, and now the 21st, century. When Palestine was partitioned in 1948, the city of Jerusalem ended up itself divided, with the Old City annexed to Jordan, and most of the New City made the capital of an independent Israel. The city was reunited in 1967 and all of it annexed to Israel. This action has not been accepted by Palestinians, the United Nations, or even the United States -- which never recognized Jerusalem as the capital of Israel in the first place, since the UN partition plan made it some kind of international city. Israeli governments, on the other hand, have vowed never to divide the city again. There is still little hope of a compromise or peaceful solution to all this, though it is obvious that at least some of the city (e.g. the Temple Mount) should be part of a dual sovereignty condominium. Such things have been done, though mainly between friendly powers.

The list of Orthodox Patriarchs is from a combination of various sources on the internet and Eusebius' The History of the Church [Penguin, 1965]. Websites identity this lineage as the "Greek Orthodox" Patriarchs of Jerusalem. This is a little confusing, since today the "Greek Orthodox" Church may simply mean the national Church of Greece. But this national Church has only existed since Greek independence. Before then "Greek Orthodox" can only mean the Christian Church whose primary liturgical language was Greek, and for the entire Middle Ages that meant the Church of the Patriarch of Constantinople -- now commonly called the "Ecumenical" Patriarchate to distinguish him from the Greek national Church. The Patriarchate of Jerusalem, however, was never any kind of subsidiary of the Patriarch of Constantinople. What did happen, however, was the Schism of the Latin and the Greek Church with those of Syria and Egypt over the Fourth Ecumenical Council, which declared the Monophysite doctrine, that Jesus had one nature, heretical. This divided the Patriarchates of Antioch and Alexandria into Monophysite ("Jacobite" and Coptic, respectively) and Imperial lines. The Imperial Church might be call the "Catholic" Church, as it was at the time, but this would now be confusing, since it has come to simply mean the Papal Latin Church of Rome -- after the Schism with the Greek Church in 1054. The term used for the Middle Eastern Imperial Churches has been "Melkite," i.e. "Royal" (Hebrew melekh and Arabic malik, "king," the related Aramaic or Syriac term would have been the more immediate source). My understanding, therefore, is that the "Greek Orthodox" Patriarchs of Jerusalem are actually the Melkite Patriarchs. I may be confused about this, but full accounts of the situation are rare. There is, as it happens, an independent Monophysite Church represented in Jerusalem, and that is the line of Armenian Patriarchs, beginning with Abraham (638-669). It may be revealing that this starts right after the Islamic Conquest, when Imperial authorities could no longer object. The Armenian Patriarch presided over an actual Armenian Quarter in the Old City of Jerusalem, thus distinguished from the Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Quarters.

In Mediaeval Europe, until the 13th century there was little progress in geographical knowledge. The view of the world came to be determined by a religious template. Most importantly, this meant that Jerusalem would be regarded as the center of all the lands of the earth. This actually did not mean that the educated thought that the earth was flat. Evidence for a round earth was known since the Pythagoreans, and Eratosthenes had estimated its diameter with considerable accuracy in the 3rd century BC. However, even given the best ancient geographical knowledge, Europe, Africa, and Asia could still more or less be fit into the circular form surrounded by the Ocean originally envisioned by the Greeks. Putting Jerusalem in the precise center of the circle did produce distortions. Europeans didn't know much about the far reaches of Asia, but estimates of the distance to China in general were greater than the true distance. However, Jerusalem-centric maps generally were much more schematic than I show here and so introduce much greater distortions than just a foreshortening of Asia. Thus, an aesthetic urge to render the Mediterranean, Black, and Red Seas into a convenient "T" required that much that was already known be ignored. The "T maps" were therefore works of sacred rather than practical geography. The version I have produced at left is schematic but less so than many "T" maps. Even with overestimates of the size of Asia, the total known area of the earth seemed small in relation to the calculations of Eratosthenes.