The historically central kingdoms of Francia, besides
These were all part of the Empire of Charlemagne. (Lorraine was only briefly a separate kingdom and then became one of the Stem Duchies of Germany.) The Periphery of Francia thus means the surrounding kingdoms. These naturally fall into six groups.
Outremer ("across the sea"), however, considered as part of Mediaeval Romania, and mostly Orthodox or Islâmic in faith, was a kind of colony, and a temporary one, of Francia, not strictly part of the "periphery." All the parts of it ended up conquered by the Turks.
Culturally, the Periphery of Francia is distinguished by the same characteristics detailed for Francia, i.e. the original jurisdiction of the 
Catholic Church, the use of the Latin language and alphabet, etc. Some of these areas seem more peripheral than others. Spain became the center of European power in the 16th century, and Britain in the 19th. All the great wars of the 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, however, originated in the Core of Francia and then drew in the Peripheral states. An exception to all this was when Scandinavia was the center, if not of European power, certainly of the most energetic of European events. That stretched from the 9th to the 11th centuries, the "Second Dark Age." The Scandinavians of that period, Vikings (then Normans) in the West and Varangians (then Russians) in the East, were still pagan, and their raids and conquests were a threat everywhere in Francia. Christianization in the 10th and 11th centuries largely brought the threat to a close, except for the more conventional conquests of the Normans and Russians.
My sources for all these tables are often given with the specific tables. A discussion of general sources is given under Francia.
Index
The Kings of
 |
 |
and Portugal 
,
Spain, unlike Britain, never fell outside of history after the collapse of the Western Empire, which gives us a continuous record of rule from Rome through the Visigoths and beyond. Nevertheless, Spain underwent her own unique transformation in the trauma of the Islâmic conquest. The Visigoths were crushed and for almost three centuries a revived Christian kingdom, Asturias, could do little more than cling to the north coast and the northwest corner of Iberia. Nevertheless, more than one Christian state eventually organized and gradually reconquered the peninsula. Navarre (Navarra), Aragón, and Barcelona all began as march counties of Francia. Asturias/Galicia/León could claim direct succession from the Visigoths, while Castile (Castilla) was a march of León. There were at different times up to five different Spanish Christian kingdoms. These were all eventually consolidated. Portugal, which began as a county of León, was the only kingdom to ultimately maintain its independence of the rest of Spain. Spain was sometimes styled an "empire." Ferdinand I and Alfonso VII of Castile were sometimes styled "Emperor," but in Mediaeval Europe, the Popes regarded such a title as theirs to dispense, and no self-proclaimed emperors were going to get cooperation from the Church. In fact, Alfonso X of Castile was actually elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1257, but nothing came of it all. Alfonso never went to Germany, distracted by civil war (1275) and rebellion (1282), and it was already clear that the Pope had no intention of crowning him. When the Pope finally crowned Emperor a King of Spain, it was Charles V (Charles I of Spain), a 1/4 German Hapsburg who had been born and raised in Belgium. The Imperial crown then passed to Charles's brother Ferdinand of Austria, not to his son Philip II of Spain. [cf. J.H. Elliott, Imperial Spain, 1469-1716, Mentor, 1963; Adam Wandruszka, The House of Habsburg, Anchor Books, 1965; Denys Hay, Europe in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries, Longmans, Green and Co. Ltd., 1966; and, more recently, Henry Kamen, Empire, How Spain Became a World Power, 1492-1763, HarperCollins, 2003.]
An issue of note concerns the name "Spain" -- España. The entire peninsula can be called, in a geographical sense, without ambiguity, Iberia. Similarly calling the whole peninsula "Spain," however casually, can evoke impassioned responses. Spain now is a country that is distinct from Portugal. On the other hand, in Latin, Hispania was the whole peninsula. In the Middle Ages, when various kingdoms occupied Iberia, and none of them was España, they all collectively and reasonably were called the "Spains," Hispaniae. When the Kingdoms of León, Castile, and Aragón, and then Navarra, came under common rule, the combination began to be called, unofficially but reasonably, "España." The battle cry of 16th century Spanish troops was "Santiago, España!" (the former referring to the pilgrimage site of Santiago de Compostela in Galicia). It may have been Philip II who issued the first decree for "these realms of Spain." As it happens, this was issued from Lisbon after Philip claimed the Throne of Portugal in 1580 and occupied the Kingdom. So the official use of "Spain" seems to have initially and in fact been for the whole peninsula. When Portugal revolted and became independent again in 1640, the rest of the Kingdom simply continued, down to the present, under the common name. So what "Spain" means actually depends on what we are talking about and when. It has only really meant a political part of Iberia since 1640.
Another issue is with the names of the Kings. Since the major languages of Christendom use many of the same names, it is often possible to give translations. This was formerly the most common, so that in English one talked about "Johns" and "Peters" in the Spanish Kingdoms. This is now sometimes frowned upon, but the desire to use the "native" language of the country in question can produce some gaffs: One occasionally sees Kings of Portugal called "Juan," when this is actually just the Spanish, not the Portuguese, version of "John" -- that would be "João." Since there are other languages in the Iberian Peninsula -- Catalan, Basque, and Galician -- besides standard (Castilian) Spanish and Portuguese, it is often a good question just what vernacular language was being used in a particular time and place. There is also the complication that the Kings of Navarre marry into French Royalty and nobility and so after 1234 are all French speaking. The written langugage during much of the period, of course, would just be Latin.
"John" is "Juan" in Castilian, "Xoán" in Galician, "Ion" or "Jon" in Basque, "Joan" in Catalan, "Jean" in French, and "Johannes" in Latin (another form, "Iban," only occurs in the patronymic "Ibañez"). Simply using "John" would seem to be the least confusing and the most revealing. However, Portuguese and Spanish (Castilian) versions are given for most of the names (somewhat irregularly). Some names -- "Alfonso" and "Sancho" -- really do not have English equivalents. Sancho, the name of many Kings of Navarre, is written "Santxo" in Basque and may in fact have originally been a Basque name, though its origin in now obscure ("Santius" was the Latinized version). "Alfonso" becomes "Alphonse" in French, and this has been borrowed into English to an extent, but it is not very common, so "Alfonso," like "Sancho," is simply given in its Spanish form. Sometimes overlooked, again, is that the Portuguese, "Afonso," is different. Equally Spanish is a derivative of "Elizabeth": "Isabel" or "Ysabel." This Latinized as "Isabella," which is the form of the name usually used in English. There is a problem with the English equivalent for Castilian "Juana," the feminine form of "Juan." Although this is simply "Jeanne" in French, "Jone" in Basque, or "Johanna" in Latin, in English it could be "Joan," "Joanna," "Joanne," "Jane," or even "Jeanne." "Ferdinand" and "Fernando" are both of Spanish derivation, originally "Ferdinando." This was itself Visigothic, and the form now most familiar in English, "Ferdinand," is the version of the name as it passed into German with the marriage of Juana the Mad of Castile to Philip of Hapsburg. One of their sons was then the Emperor Ferdinand I. He was raised in Spain, speaking Spanish. His grandfather, Ferdinand II of Aragón, contemplated leaving the kingdom of Aragón to him in his will but thought better of it. Later, he was given the rule of Austria by his brother. Elected king of Hungary and Bohemia, he then succeeded his brother as Emperor.
His brother, of course, was the Emperor Charles V. It is "Charles" in French and English, "Carlos" in Spanish and Portuguese, "Carolus" in Latin, and "Karl" in German. The story about Charles is that he only spoke German to his horse. He was raised at the court of his grandfather, the Emperor Maximilian I, in the Netherlands, speaking Flemish, where his name would be, I think, "Karel," as in Dutch. There is a monument to Charles V in Guadalajara, Mexico. It actually calls him "King Charles V" ("Rey Carlos V"), which is not quite right since, as King of Spain, he was Charles I. All this seems to confuse everybody.
The colors here go with the kingdoms, but as the kingdoms combine, the color of the dominant kingdom supersedes the others. Thus yellow, the color for Castile (which started as a County of León, was detached by Sancho the Great of Navarre, and then was willed to his son Ferdinand I as a separate kingdom), is also the color for Spain as a whole, as Castile absorbs León, Aragón, and then, briefly, Portugal. A minor variation is that the red is darker for the Kingdom of the Asturias, of which León was essentially a continuation. The change in name took place after one of the characteristic divisions and then recombinations, several of which we see later, between brothers, sometimes brothers who become hostile and murderous to each other.
The Islâmic rulers of Spain, 756-1492, are listed separately from this page, with the other rulers of Islâm, linked in the table at right. The first three hundred years after the Islâmic Conquest were tough times, naturally, for Christian Spain, which took quite a while to even get organized in some areas. These years were largely those of the Omayyad Amirs and Caliphs, who may be said to have presided over the Golden Age of Islâmic Spain. The suprisingly rapid decline of the Omayyads in the 11th century quickly led to complete political fragmentation and to grave vulnerability to the rising Christian Kingdoms.
It should be noted that although Spanish Christians later referred to all Spanish, and also North African, Moslems as "Moors," this lumps together ethnically and linguistically distinct peoples, particularly those who were actually Arabs and those who were of North African Berber derivation. There was sometimes tension and conflict between these groups in Islâmic Spain. "Moors" also would mean native Spaniard converts to Islâm, the Muwalladûn. If one then considers sub-Saharan black African Moslems as "Moors," like Shakespeare's Othello, this adds another group, one that would have been noticeable in North Africa but probably of somewhat lesser significance in Spain. To many people, however, "Moor" always means "black," and this is a serious confusion. Indeed, a factor in the 11th century in Spain were slave troops, the S.aqâliba, that consisted, not of Africans, but of captives from Christian Europe. Also confusing is the tradition of calling Christians in Islâmic Spain "Mozarabs."
Navarre, which is perhaps known too generally by the French version of its name, was originally a kingdom of the Basques, an apparently autochthonous people whose language has no demonstrable affinities to any other in the world, much less to any in the area. Thus, "Basque" in Basque is Euskara, and the Basque speaking country, which extends beyond Navarre, is Euskal Herria. Interesting genetic information about this is reported by Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza in Genes, Peoples, and Languages [University of California Press, 2000]. The Basque region turns out to be the center of a characteristic gene component of European populations. Cavalli-Sforza says:
...the Basques once inhabited a much larger territory than today... During the last Paleolothic period the Basque region extended over almost the entire area where ancient cave paintings have been found. There are some cues [sic, "clues"?] that Basque descends from a language spoken 35,000 to 40,000 years ago, during the first occupation of France by modern humans... The artists of these caves would have spoken a language of the first, preagricultural Europeans, from which modern Basque is derived. [pp.120-121]
Thus, neither the French nor the Spanish -- Navarra -- version of the name of the kingdom is necessarily more correct than the Basque version, Nafarroa. While Navarre was the dominant Spanish kingdom under Sancho the Great, its power and extent declined quickly and decisively. Of the seven Basque provinces in Spain and France (where only about 12,000 people speak Basque any longer), only two ended up belonging to Navarre proper. I have not noticed Basque nationalists claiming to have invented art (i.e. the cave paintings), but they apparently would have as reasonable a claim as anyone.
| Islamic Conquest of Spain, Visigoths Overthrown; Battles of Jerez de la Frontera & Ecija, Cordova captured, 711; Seville & Toledo captured, 712; Battle of Segoyuela, Saragossa (Zaragoza) captured, 713; Valencia captured, 714 | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Kings of Asturias, at Oviedo | Arabs stopped in Francia, Battle of Poitiers, 732 | ||
| Pelayo, Pelagius | 718-737 | ||
| Arabs stopped, Battle of Covadonga, 718 | |||
| Favila | 737-739 | Basques, Kings of Navarre, Navarra, Nafarroa | |
| Alfonso I, the Catholic | 739-757 | ||
| Fruela I, the Cruel | 757-768 | ||
| Aurelio, Aurelius | 768-774 | Charlemagne defeated at Roncesvalles, 778 | |
| Silo | 774-783 | ||
| Mauregato, Mauregatus | 783-788 | Iñigo Jimenez | Count, d.822? |
| Vermudo/Bermudo I, the Deacon | 788-791 | Enneco, Iñigo Iniguez Arista | King, 822- c.851 |
| Alfonso II, the Chaste | 791-842 | County of Barcelona, in Francia, 801 | |
| Nepociano, Nepotian | 842 (?) (852?) | García I Iniguez | 852- 882 |
| Ramiro I | 842-850 | García (II) Jimenez | rival, d.c.885 |
| Ordoño I | 850-866 | Iñigo Garcés | c.885-? |
| Alfonso III, the Great | 866-910 | Fortuno, Fortun Garcés | 882- 905 |
| Garcia | 910-914 | Sancho I Garcés | 905-925 |
| Ordoño II | Galicia, 910-924 | ||
| 914-924 | |||
| Kings of León | |||
| Fruela II, the Cruel | 924-925 | ||
| Sancho Ordoñez | Galicia, 925-929 | Jimeno Garcés | 925-931 |
| Alfonso IV, the Monk | 925-931 | ||
| Ramiro II | Galicia, 929-951 | García II Sánchez I | 931-971 |
| 931-951 | |||
| Ordoño III | 951-955 | Count of Aragón, 922-971 | |
| Sancho I, the Fat | 955-958, 960-966 | ||
| Ordoño IV, the Wicked | 958-960 | Sancho II Gárces II Abarca | 971-994 |
| Ramiro III | 967-982, d.985 | ||
| Vermudo II | 982-999 | García III Sánchez II | 994-c.999 |
| Alfonso V, the Noble | 999-1027 | ||
The names of the early Kings of Navarre, like those of the early Basque Dukes of Gascony, display the active use of the patronymic suffix -ez/s. This later becomes conspicuous in Spanish and Portuguese surnames, but here bespeaks Basque derivation -- like the names with which it is used, viz. Sancho (Santxo) and García.
Navarre became the suzerain of Aragón in the 9th century. After some intermarriage, the county was united to Navarre in 971 (or 970). Because of this process, different events sometimes are referred to by different sources. Thus, Bruce R. Gordon says that Navarre acquired Aragón "c.850," but The New Penguin Atlas of Medieval History says 970 (p.50, note 2). The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume III, c.900-c.1024 [Timothy Reuter, editor, Cambridge, 1999] gives the details [p.689, with the year 970, but then the year 971 on p.717]. There are other uncertainties about this period. While the picture in Gordon is that the Asturias was divided among three sons of Alfonso III, ultimately with all inherited by Alfonso IV, The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume II, c.700-c.900 [Rosamond McKitterick, editor, Cambridge, 1995, p. 863] and Volume III [p. 716] list Ordoño II and Fruela II as successive Kings of León after Garcia. The details are given in Volume III [pp.674-675]. The independent (rebellious?) kingdoms in Galicia are the confusing factor. In this period the capital of the principal kingdom was moved from Oviedo in Asturias to Zamora and then, perhaps by Ordoño II, to León, which now gives its name to the whole.
The following genealogy was originally derived from Volume III of the Cambridge Medieval History, based on the text where the diagrams [pp.716-717] unaccountably differ. Also, the text refers to the daughter of Sancho García of Castile who marries Sancho III of Navarre as "Mayor" [p.687], even though the diagram calls her "Elvira" and "Mayor" is elsewhere given in the text as the heiress of Ribagorza [p.690]. Now, according to the Erzählende genealogische Stammtafeln zur europäischen Geschichte, Volume II, Part 1, Europäiche Kaiser-, Königs- und Fürstenhäuser I Westeuropa [Andreas Thiele, R. G. Fischer Verlag, Third Edition, 2001], "Munia Mayor"
| Counts of Aragón | |
|---|---|
| Aznar I Galindez | ? |
| García the Bad | d.858 |
| Galindo I Aznárez | 858-c.867 |
| Aznar II Galindez | c.867-c.893 |
| Galindo II Aznárez | c.893-922 |
| Andregoto | Countess, 922-972 |
| annexed by Navarre, 971 | |
The problem of the annexation of Aragón gets muddied a bit further. The heiress of Aragón, Andregoto (seen elsewhere as "Andregoro"), is shown dying in 972, which looks close (at least) to the dates given by the Cambridge History and the Penguin Atlas. However, Andregoto's husband, García II Sanchez of Navarre, already is given, without a date, as Count of Aragón because of his marriage. This is simple enough, but then García is said to have divorced (verstoßen) Andregoto circa 940. So did Andregoto remain Countess of Aragon despite the divorce? The 971 could then be the year that her son, Sancho II Abarca, inherited Navarre and so, perhaps, also Aragón.
It is notworthy that the lines of Asturias, Castile, and Navarre begin with simultaneous or alternating reigns of rival cousins or even in-laws, i.e. husbands of cousins. How this worked seems clearest in Asturias and most obscure in Castile.
In what follows, before Iberia settles down to just two Kingdoms again (Spain and Portugal), things get very complicated. This is where we get up to five independent Christian thrones -- six counting Barcelona -- not to mention the Moslem states. Thus, the table of rulers has been broken up into more convenient sections. Each section is preceded by maps of the period and followed by a family tree of the rulers. Navarre is given special treatment after the extinction of the Kingdom in Spain. It might be noted that after 1037, every ruler in Christian Spain is a descendant of Sancho III of Navarre.
It should be noted that the Kings of the Asturias, Galicia, León, Castile (Castilla), and Spain (España) share a common numbering, but that the Kings of Navarre, Aragón, and Portugal are all numbered independently. Thus, Sancho II of Navarre (970-994) is different from Sancho II of Aragón (1063-1094), Sancho II of Castile (1065-1072), and Sancho II of Portugal (1223-1245); but Alfonso IX of León (1188-1230) is numbered in succession to Alfonso VIII of Castile (1158-1214).
| Counts of Castile, Castilla, at Burgos | |
|---|---|
| Nuño Nuñez I | 899-c.909 |
| Nuño Nuñez II | 914/15 |
| Gonzalo Tellez | 903-929 |
| Munio Fernandez | c.921 |
| Fernando Ansurez | 916-920, 927-930 |
| Gonzalo Fernandez | 930-932 |
| Fernán(do) González | 932-970 |
| García I Fernandez White Hands | 970-995 |
| Sancho I García Good Laws | 995-1017 |
| García II Sanchez | 1017-1028 |
| annexed by Navarre, 1029 | |
The following period sees the beginning of the Reconquista, the reconquest of Islâmic Spain by the Christian states. It is certainly a bad period for the native Moslem states. Their weakness and divisions make it possible for Alfonso VI of León and Castile to capture Toledo in 1085, the traditional beginning of the Reconquista. However, the alarm of Islâm at this turn drew in the Almoravids (Murabits) from North Africa, who then defeated Alfonso at Zallâqa in 1086, without, however, recovering Toledo. This therefore began a new era for Islâmic Spain as well as for Christian, since native Islâmic Spain was now unable to withstand the Christians on its own and became dependent on North African powers. The confusions of the period become a source of great romance. When Alfonso, deposed by his brother, Sancho II of Castile, returned to power in Castile as well as León, he took on many of Sancho's retainers, including one Rodrigo Díaz (d. 1099). Rodrigo came to fall out of favor and in 1081 became a mercenary, fighting for both Christians and Moslems. After taking Valencia in 1094, he passed into legend as El Cid, interestingly an Arabic title, Sîd, "lord, master," and the Campeador. Díaz's daughter Christina married into the House of Navarre, and her son became King Garcia V. This means that the present King of Spain, Juan Carlos, and much of European nobility are descendants of the Cid.
Kings of  León | Kings of  Navarre | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vermudo/Bermudo III | 1027- 1037 | Sancho I of Aragón | 1000- 1035 | ||||||
Kings of Castile | Kings of Aragón | García IV Sánchez III | 1035- 1054 | ||||||
| 1037- 1065 | Ferdinand/Fernando I the Great | 1035- 1065 | Ramiro I | 1035- 1063 | |||||
| 1065- 1070, 1072- 1109 | Alfonso VI | King of Galicia | Sancho II | 1065- 1072 | Sancho IV | 1054- 1076 | |||
| García | 1065- 1071, 1072- 1073 d.1094 | ||||||||
| 1073-1109 | 1072-1109 | 1063- 1094 | Sancho II Ramirez, Sancho V of Navarre | 1076- 1094 | |||||
| captures Toledo, made capital of Castile; beginning of the Reconquista, 1085; but defeated by Almoravids, Zallâqa, 1086 | |||||||||
Counts & Kings of Portugal | Urraca (married to Alfonso I of Aragón) | 1109- 1126 | Peter/Pedro I | 1094- 1104 | |||||
| Henry, brother, Odo I of Burgundy | Count 1093- 1112 | Alfonso I el Batallador (co-ruled León & Castile, 1109-1126) | 1104- 1134 | ||||||
| Afonso I | Count 1112- 1139 | Alfonso VII | Galicia, 1112- 1126 | ||||||
| King 1139- 1185 | 1126- 1157 | occupation of Saragossa, 1118-1130 | |||||||
| Portugal | León | Castile | Aragón | Navarre | |||||
Ferdinand I's Kingdom of Castile and León was divided between his three sons: Sancho II received Castile, Alfonso VI, León, and a new Kingdom of Galicia was broken off León for García. However, Sancho II prevented García from taking up his kingdom and then proceeded to attack Alfonso VI. In 1070, Sancho actually defeated Alfonso and drove him into exile, reassembling the whole kingdom of Ferdinand I. But when Sancho was killed in 1072, the whole kingdom immediately fell to Alfonso, who maintained its unity by imprisoning García until his death. How Sancho was killed is still a matter of uncertainty. He seems to have been meeting an incursion from Alfonso in exile, but the death may have been one of betrayal than just of battle. Whether Alfonso was even present is variously represented.
Daughters of Alfonso VI married men from Burgundy, but different Burgundies. His illegitimate daughter Teresa married a brother, Henry, of the Dukes of Burgundy, Hugh I and Odo I. Their son became the first King of Portugal. Alfonso's daughter Urraca, heiress of León and Castile, married Raymond, brother of Renald II, Count of Burgundy, i.e. ruler of the Free County, Franche Comté, of Burgundy. These domains and houses were completely independent of each other, with the Duchy of Burgundy a fief of France and its Dukes Capetian members of the French Royal Family, while the County was a fief of the Kingdom of Burgundy and its Counts members of the Italian House of Ivrea. These complexities are now lost as the history of Burgundy and its divisions are forgotten.
In the following period the Almoravid state, which began to weaken, is replaced and the position of Islâmic Spain is restrengthed by a new North African force, the Almohads (Muwahids), who came to Spain in 1147. This respite turns out to be relatively brief. The Christian Kingdoms are growing and occasionally can even cooperate. The Almohads were then crushed at Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212. They had abandoned Spain by 1229, and St. Ferdinand III of Castile and León began to roll up the heart of Andalusia, with Cordova falling in 1235 and Seville in 1248. This would leave only the Sultânate of Granada, in the difficult Sierra Nevada, as a remnant of Islâmic Spain.
| Kings of Portugal | Kings of León | Kings of Castile | Kings of Aragón | Kings of Navarre | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sancho I | 1185- 1211 | Ferdinand II | 1157- 1188 | Sancho III | 1157- 1158 | Ramiro II | 1134- 1137 | Garcia V Ramirez | 1134- 1150 |
| Alfonso VIII | 1158- 1214 | union with County of Barcelona, 1137 | |||||||
| Queen Petronilla | 1137- 1173 | ||||||||
| capture of Saragossa, 1146, new capital of Aragón | |||||||||
| Afonso II | 1211- 1223 | Alfonso IX | 1188- 1230 | Alfonso II | 1173- 1196 | Sancho VI | 1150- 1194 | ||
| defeat by Muwahids at Alarcos, 1195; victory at Las Navas de Tolosa, 1212 | Pedro II | 1196- 1213 | Sancho VII | 1194- 1234 | |||||
| Sancho II | 1223- 1245 | Henry I | 1214- 1217 | James/ Jaime I | 1213- 1276 | ||||
| 1230- 1252 | St. Ferdinand III San Fernando Rey de España | 1217- 1252 | Thibault, Teobaldo I, of Cham- pagne | 1234- 1253 | |||||
| capture of Cordova, 1235, Seville, 1248, Murcia, 1266 | capture of Valencia, 1238 | Thibault, Teobaldo II | 1253- 1270 | ||||||
The marriage of Blanca of Navarre to Theobald of Champagne means that for a while the Counts of Champagne become the Kings of Navarre. Greater detail of that genealogy can be examined on the page for Champagne. What this leads to is examined further below.
In the following period the Reconquista is completed, and Spain, unified, becomes a World Power, perhaps truly the first such, as Spanish sailors circle the planet and claim most of it, with the claims sticking in much of the New World, the Philippines, and elsewhere -- even as the inheritance of the united Kingdom by the Hapsburgs made Spain a partner to the dominant political forces of Catholic Europe. 
One detail noticeable on the maps but not thoroughly indicated in the table or genealogy below (but shown at right) is the temporary Aragonese Kingdom of Majorca, conquered from the Almohads and then left to a brother, James II, of Peter III. Eventually, Peter IV disposessed his cousin and returned the islands to Aragón (1343).
Meanwhile, with the completion of the Reconquista, there was the nagging problem of the non-Christians, the Jews and Moslems, who were scooped up in the new possessions. There had already been forced conversions of Jews, both by Christians and by the Almoravids and Almohads. Some Jews, like Moses Maimonides (1135-1204), had seen the handwriting on the wall back then and left. Under Christian rule, however, many Jews had converted -- the Conversos. Christians suspected, sometimes correctly, that many Conversos were still secretly practicing Judaism. These were derisively called Marranos, perhaps derived from a Spanish word for "swine." The Spanish Inquisition, run by the Spanish Crown with little reference to the Pope, in great measure was created to test the faith of Marranos, many of whom were burned at the stake or otherwise punished for the actual or suspected practice of Judaism. In the fateful year of 1492, the religious problem was taken up a couple of notches. After a long and hard campaign, Granada surrendered, finishing the Reconquista. The last Sult.ân left for North Africa, but one condition of the surrender was religious toleration for Moslems. This was not going to last long, only until 1499. By 1502, Moslems of Granada were supposed to accept baptism or leave; and by 1526 this was the choice for the last Moslems of Valencia and Aragón. Those who remained and converted were the Moriscos, who thus joined the Marranos as suspected crypto-infidels. Meanwhile in 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella decided to expel all unconverted Jews from Spain. Portugal followed suit in 1497 and Navarre in 1498. Jews went to North Africa, distant Turkey, the Netherlands, and other places. Those who remained and converted, of course, were now open to the tender investigations of the Inquisition. The greater threat to the regime, however, seemed to be the Moriscos, who continued to speak Arabic and retained their traditional garb and customs. They were occasionally ordered to stop and assimilate. These orders were generally ignored, but as the Spanish state strengthened, the threat became more serious. The enforcement of a 1566 (or 1567) order finally provoked a Revolt at the end of 1568. With the Turkish navy contesting the Mediterranean, and crypto-Moslem Moriscos calling for help, the Revolt became part of the larger confrontation with Islâm that troubled Philip II. With much hard fighting, and even subsequent years of guerrilla actions, the Revolt was largely suppressed in 1570. Philip decided to remove the remaining Moriscos from Granada and scattered them throughout Spain. This ended their threat as a serious internal enemy, but it did not end their existence as a cultural and religious irritation. The suspicion of Marranos and Moriscos by the Church and the Crown poisoned Spain for many years. In so far as the Moriscos were concerned, however, this didn't last too long, since Philip III decided in 1609 to expel them from Spain altogether, whether they were really Christians or not. This was accomplished by 1614, after which only the persecution of Marranos would continue. Many of them, rather than fleeing Spain altogether, moved to the Spanish colonies in the New World, where their exalted status over the Indians made their disabilities back home less conspicuous and significant. Astonishingly, even today some families surivive in New Mexico with the memory, passed down the generations, that they had once been Jews. Former Jews, "New Christians," in Spain itself, whether under suspicion or not, did not achieve equality for many years. Limpieza de sangre, "purity of blood," laws kept them and their descendants excluded from universities and religious orders. These laws, which sound like nothing so much as the racial Nuremberg laws of Nazi Germany, were not repealed until 1865. They lasted longer than the Inquisition itself, which was abolished in 1834.
The deliberate destruction of the Jewish and Moslem communities in Spain was no help to Spain either culturally or economically. The Arab historian Philip Hitti has said that Spain shone for a few years with a "borrowed glory" from its creative mediaeval communites, but then sank into the status of a cultural and political backwater. Well, it is understandable that an Arab historian might say this, but no one can consider classical Spanish literature or art and think of it as "borrowed." Where Spain failed to keep up with modernity was already predicted, in a sense, by Miguel Cervantes (1547-1616). A Spain whose arms failed, as they did in 1643, henceforth would play out the tragicomic life of Don Quixote. Nevertheless, unique brilliance and creativity still shine in the art of Francisco Goya (1746-1828), one of the greatest painters of all time. Even in the early 20th century, when Spain seemed the most behind the times, the brilliant architect, Antonio Gaudí (1852-1926) produced work at once uniquely Spanish and modern -- in an area of art, architecture, where most would think traditional Spanish forms particularly derivative of Islâm. His amazing church of the Sagrada Familia in Barcelona ("melting Gothic"), still incomplete, brings Spanish Christian piety fresh into the 21th century, long after Gaudí's own death. Spain thus harmed, and shamed, itself with its intolerance, and wandered from the mainstream of modern development, but there it no doubt that its aesthetic and religious vision was powerful, autochthonous, and enduring.
For a good part of the following period the royal houses of Spain and Portugal were both illegitimate: Trastámara and Avis. Also, John of Avis had an illegitimate son, the Duke of Braganza, who leads to the Kings of Portugal after Spanish rule is overthrown in 1640. Also noteworthy is the fact that Queen Isabella of León and Castile usurped the throne of her niece, Joanna la Beltraneja. Isabella's half-brother, Henry IV, was called "the Impotent" because this is what his first wife, Blanche of Navarre, said. He cannot have been completely impotent, however, since his second wife had Joanna. Later, although Joanna the Mad (Juana la Loca) is only listed as Queen until 1516, she was actually titular Queen until her death in 1555. But since Charles I (V) was both Regent and Heir, and Emperor, he is usually simply regarded as the de facto King.
A 2001 movie, Juana la Loca, was Spain's nominee for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Film. It did not make the final list of five nominees, however. I have not seen the movie yet and cannot say whether it is of historical interest.
| Kings of Portugal | Kings of Castile | Kings of Aragón | Kings of Navarre | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Afonso III | 1245- 1279 | Alfonso X, the Emperor, the Learned, the Wise | 1252- 1284 | Peter/ Pedro III | 1276- 1285 | Henry I | 1270- 1274 | ||
| King of Sicily, 1282- 1285 | Jeanne/ Juana I | 1274- 1305 | |||||||
| Diniz/ Dinis | 1279- 1325 | Sancho IV | 1284- 1295 | Alfonso III | 1285- 1291 | ||||
| Ferdinand IV | 1295- 1312 | James II | 1291- 1327 | Luis, Louis X of France | 1305- 1314 | ||||
| Sardinia ceded by Pisa, 1326 | France, 1314- 1316 | ||||||||
| Afonso IV | 1325- 1357 | Alfonso XI | 1312- 1350 | Alfonso IV | 1327- 1336 | Philip I, V of France | 1314- 1322 | ||
| Charles I, IV of France | 1322- 1328 | ||||||||
 the Black Death arrives atValencia & Seville, 1348 | |||||||||
| Peter/ Pedro I | 1357- 1367 | Peter the Cruel | 1350- 1366, 1367- 1369 | Peter IV | 1336- 1387 | Jeanne/ Juana II | 1328- 1349 | ||
| Ferdinand/ Fernando I | 1367- 1383 | Henry/ Enrique II | 1366- 1367, 1369- 1379 | Philip II, d'Evreux | 1328- 1343 | ||||
| John/ João I of Avis | 1385- 1433 | John/ Juan I | 1379- 1390 | John/ Juan I | 1387- 1395 | Charles II, the Bad | 1349- 1387 | ||
| Henry III | 1390- 1406 | Martin I | 1395- 1410 | Charles III, the Noble | 1387- 1425 | ||||
| Edward/ Duarte I | 1433- 1438 | John II | 1406- 1454 | Ferdinand I | 1412- 1416 | Blanche/ Blanca | 1425- 1441 | ||
| Alfonso V | 1416- 1458 | ||||||||
| King of Naples, 1442- 1458 | |||||||||
| Afonso V | 1438- 1481 | Henry IV | 1454- 1474 | 1458- 1479 | John II | 1425- 1479 | |||
| John/ João II | 1481- 1495 | Isabella/ Isabel I | 1474- 1504 | 1479- 1516 | Ferdinand II; Ferdinand V of Castile / Spain; Ferdinand of Navarre | Eleanor/ Leonora | 1479 | ||
| fall of Granada, end of Reconquista, Discovery of America, 1492 | François Phébus/ Francisco Febo | 1479- 1483 | |||||||
| Emanuel/ Manuel I | 1495- 1521 | Juana the Mad (d. 1555); & Philip I, of Hapsburg (d. 1506) | 1504- 1516 | Regent of Castile, 1510- 1516 | Catherine/ Catalina | 1483- 1512, d.1517 | |||
| 1512- 1516 | |||||||||
| John/ João III | 1521- 1557 | Emperor Charles V |  1516- 1556 d. 1558 | ||||||
| Conquest of Mexico, 1521; Conquest of Peru, 1533 | |||||||||
| Sebastian/ Sebastião I | 1557- 1578 | 1556- 1598 | |||||||
| Cardinal Henry/ Henrique | 1578- 1580 | ||||||||
| 1580- 1598 | |||||||||
| Default on Crown Debt, 1557; March of the Duke of Alba, 1567; Revolt of the Netherlands, 1568; Eighty Years War, 1568-1648; "Sea Beggars" capture Brill, 1572; relief of Leiden by William of Orange, 1574; Default on Crown Debt, 1575; mutiny of Spanish Army in the Netherlands, sack of Antwerp, 1576; Default on Crown Debt, 1596 | |||||||||
| 1598- 1621 | |||||||||
| Default on Crown Debt, 1607; Thirty Years War, 1618-1648 | |||||||||
In this period Aragón grew into a Mediterranean power. The map at left summarizes the expansion of Aragón from the original Pyreneean County, a separate Kingdom in 1035, until its reach extends all the way to Naples and even Athens. The junior line of Majorca is given above. The lines for Sicily, Naples, and Athens are given on the separate pages for those realms, though the genealogy of Sicily and Naples is in the following table here. The most curious episode concerns Athens. A band of Aragonese mercenaries, the "Catalan Company," mutinied against the Roman Emperor in 1305. Duke Walter of Athens hired them in 1310. They murdered him in 1311 and took over the Duchy. Between 1312 and 1342, the Duchy was ruled by three brothers of King Peter II of Sicily. Between 1342 and 1388, it was then ruled by the Kings of Sicily themselves. Just as Sicily was about to be inherited by Aragón itself, Athens passed to the control of the Acciaiuoli family. On the other hand, the most dramatic episode was the manner in which Pedro III acquired Sicily in the first place. This was the result of the revolt in 1282 of the "Sicilian Vespers," by which the Sicilians rose up and expelled the French under Charles of Anjou. Since Pedro had married Constance, the daughter of Manfred, King of Naples and Sicily, who had been killed by Charles in 1266, he was invited in to be King of Sicily. The Pope was furious, but Realpolitik won out. Later, Alfonso V pressed a flimsy claim to Naples itself and won it by force (1442). He left the Kingdom to his illegitimate son Ferdinand (Ferrante), as Aragón passed to the legitimate heir, Alfonso's brother John. After Naples was occupied by the French, 1495-1496, John's son, Ferdinand II, ended up deposing his cousin and annexing the Kingdom to Aragón (1501).
Spanish and Portuguse Colonial Possessions
| Kings of Navarre | |
|---|---|
| Catherine/Catalina | 1483-1517 |
| John III d'Albret | 1484-1516 |
| Henry II | 1517-1555 |
| Jeanne III | 1555-1572 |
| Anthony de Bourbon Duke of Vendôme | 1555-1562 |
| Huguenot leader, dies of wounds, 1562 | |
| Henry III, Henry IV of France | 1572-1610 |
| King of France, 1589-1610 | |
The large genealogical chart, Kings & Queens of Europe, compiled by Anne Tauté [University of North Carolina Press, 1989], simply ends the line of Navarre with Jeanne I. For a long time, the only family tree I had seen of subsequent rulers was in Europe in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centures, by Denys Hay [Longmans, London, 1966, p. 404], which ends with Queen Catherine, who lost the Kingdom to Ferdinand. Family trees for the Bourbons, such as given here, almost never go back further than the father, Henry, of Henry IV's mother Jeanne. Brian Tompsett's Royal and Noble genealogy originally enabled me to fill in the gaps, but there are some obscurities and questions in the information of both Tompsett and Hay that I had to compare with other sources. The first complete list of the Kings of Navarre I have found is in the Regentenlisten und Stammtafeln zur Geschichte Europas by Michael F. Feldkamp [Philipp Reclam, Stuttgart, 2002, pp.146-148]. A complete genealogy can now be found in the Erzählende genealogische Stammtafeln zur europäischen Geschichte, Volume II Part 1, Europäische Kaiser-, Königs, und Fürstenhäuser I Westeuropa, by Andreas Thiele [R.G. Fischer Verlag, 2001, p.185-192].
The most striking thing about the succession for Navarre is that the last Capetian Kings of France, Louis X to Charles IV, were all Kings of Navarre. John I doesn't seem to get counted as a King of Navarre, but then, only reigning eight days, he is sometimes not even counted as a King of France -- 
on the other hand, it may be necessary to count him if the husband of Catherine is to be counted as John III of Navarre, which means that John II of Aragón was also John II of Navarre -- there was no earlier John (Jean/Juan) in Navarre to be John I, if not the Capetian. With the death of Charles IV (Charles I of Navarre), a curious thing happens. The succession of France jumps to the House of Valois, but, as it happened, Louis X had a surviving daughter, Jeanne. She was ignored for the French Throne because of the Salic Law, which prohibited female succession, but the Salic Law did not apply to Navarre. So while the French Thone passed to Philip VI in 1328, the Throne of Navarre passed to Jeanne/Juana (II).
Jeanne's son was Charles "the Bad." A lengthy account of his doings can be found in Barbara Tuchman's A Distant Mirror [Ballantine, 1978], which is about the events of the 14th century. The County of Evreux, which he inherited from his father, was in Normandy, which means he spent a great deal of his life in intrigues very distant from the Pyrenees.
Two generations later, we get to Queen Blanche/Blanca, who marries Spanish rather than French, namely the future King of Aragón, John II. After Blanche's death John remarries. He then outlives all of Blanche's children but one, Eleanor/Leonora. Aragón goes to a son, Ferdinand, by his second marriage, but Navarre passes to Leonora, who does not survive the year. Her husband, Count Gaston of Foix, and her son, Gaston also, both predeceased her, so the succession passes to her grandson, Francis Phoebus (François Phébus in French; Francisco Febo in Spanish), and then her granddaughter, Catherine/Catalina. Here I had a question, because Hay shows two Gastons in between Leonora and Catherine. This seemed to be a mistake, and I followed Brian Tompsett. I have now been able to confirm this with the Erzählende genealogische Stammtafeln zur europäischen Geschichte, Volume II Part 1, Europäische Kaiser-, Königs, und Fürstenhäuser I Westeuropa, by Andreas Thiele [R.G. Fischer Verlag, 2001, p.191].
What Tompsett didn't have in his database was the young (23) Gaston (V) de Foix, Duke of Nemours, who was killed at the battle of Ravenna in 1512. Elsewhere on the Web, Gaston was listed as a son of Jean de Foix and a grandson of Gaston IV of Foix and Eleanore (Leonora) of Aragón. So I took it that Gaston and Leonora had at least two sons, though I had no sources that listed them both. Now, however, I do, since the Erzählende genealogische Stammtafeln [ibid., p.191] shows not only this, but that Gaston and Leonora had four sons and five daughters. Gaston's mother was Marie d'Orléans, a sister of King Louis XII of France.
Catherine now married French nobility again, this time John of Albret. The two of them were doomed to suffer from the ambition of her cousin, Ferdinand of Aragón, who invaded Navarre in 1512, on the pretext that the death of Gaston de Foix in 1512 made him, by virtue of his marriage to Gaston's sister, Germaine (after the death of Isabella of Castile in 1504), heir of Navarre. He got the Pope to officially dethrone Catherine and John and certify the transfer. In 1515 Ferdinand, who had joined Navarre to the Crown of Aragón, transfered it to that of Castile, lest the Navarrese claim the extra privileges enjoyed by the Aragonese. A small part of Navarre north of Pyrenees, Lower Navarre ("Basse Navarre" in French or "Nafarroa Beherea" in Basque), was retroceded by Charles V in 1530, so a landed Monarchy continued, with, of course, its growing French holdings. The table also shows an interesting alliance of the d'Albret family. John's sister Charlotte married Cesare Borgia, though he abandoned the marriage after four months.
Ferdinand's conquest of Navarre had some interesting consequences. Among Basque nobles who rebelled at Ferdinand's death in 1516 were members of the Xavier family, which was then disposessed, dislocating the young Francis Xavier. When Navarrese exiles, including Francis' brothers, tried retaking Navarre in 1521, another Basque nobleman, Ignatius Loyala, defending Pamplona against them, was wounded and had to give up a military career. Both Francis and Ignatius ended up at the University of Paris together. The latter, of course, founded the Jesuits in 1534; and Francis became one of the first Jesuit Saints, traveling as far as Japan and dying in 1552 in China near where Macao would later (in 1557) be founded -- his body, reportedly incorruptible, was returned as far as Goa in India, where it is still periodically displayed.
The succession of Navarre then passes to Henry II. Here Tompsett had a question, since he gave Henry as the grandson of Catherine but then noted obscurities over Catherine's son, named Henry also. The Encyclopaedia Britannica flatly states that Henry II himself was the son of Catherine and John d'Albret, so I followed that. This construction is confirmed by the Erzählende genealogische Stammtafeln [ibid., p.192].
Henry II marries a sister, Margaret, of King Francis I of France. She is somewhat celebrated, as Margaret (or Marquerite) of Navarre (or of Angoulême), patroness of Rabelais and author of a collection of stories, the Heptameron. Henry's daughter, Jeanne (III), then marries the senior heir of the Bourbons, Anthony (Antoine), Duke of Vendôme. 
Their son, Henry III of Navarre, becomes heir to the French Throne, claiming it, amid civil war, in 1589, as Henry IV. After 261 years, the Thrones of France and Navarre are again joined.
The map at left shows the lands that Henry brought to the French Monarchy. We have seen how Foix, Albret, and Vendôme accrued to Navarre, and how most of Navarre proper was lost to Spain. It is noteworthy that the blue territories, previously belonging to the Dukes of Bourbon, who were separate from Henry's line, had previously reverted to the French Throne. The outline of France shown is slightly unfamiliar because Savoy, Alsace, Lorraine, and the Free County of Burgundy have not yet been added to France's eastern frontier.
| The Heiresses of Navarre | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Heiress | Husband | ||
| Blanca | d.1229 | Theobald of Champagne | d.1201 |
| Jeanne I | Queen, 1274-1305 | Philip IV of France | France, 1285-1314 |
| Jeanne II | Queen, 1328-1349 | Philip of Evreux | Navarre, 1328-1343 |
| Blanca | Queen, 1425-1441 | John II of Aragón | Navarre, 1425-1479 |
| Aragón, 1459-1479 | |||
| Leonora | Queen, 1479 | Gaston IV of Foix | d.1472 |
| Catherine | Queen, 1483-1517 | John III d'Albret | Navarre, 1484-1516 |
| Jeanne III | Queen, 1555-1572 | Anthony of Bourbon | Navarre, 1555-1562 |
On the other hand, the national consciousness of the Basque people continues to trouble the unity of the nation states. Besides Spanish Navarra and French Lower Navarre, two other Basque provinces, Labourd and La Soule, exist in France, and three others, Vizcaya, Guipúzcoa, and Alava, exist in Spain. The capital of Spanish Navarra, Pamplona (from Latin Pompeiopolis or Pampaelo), Iruña in Basque, is famous for the annual running of the bulls; but Basque nationalism has a more troubling aspect in Spain, with a long and continuing campaign of terrorist attacks to the credit of the extremists. Thus, Navarre and the Basque country have a significance far beyond their size in both mediaeval and modern history.
| Portugal | Spain | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1621- 1640 | Philip III of Portugal | 1621- 1665 | |
| Loss of Atocha & other treasure ships, 1622; Default on Crown Debt, 1627; Naval defeat at Beachy Head & the Downs by the Dutch, 1639; Revolt of Portugal, 1640; Revolt of Catalonia, 1640-1659 | |||
| John/João IV of Braganza/ Bragança | 1640- 1656 | Spanish army defeated at Rocroi by France, 1643 -- end of Spanish hegemony; Default on Crown Debt, 1647 | |
| Afonso VI d. 1683 | 1656-1667 | Charles/ Carlos II | 1665-1700 |
| Peter/ Pedro II | 1667-1706 | ||
| John/ João V | 1706-1750 | Philip of Anjou/Felipe V de Borbón | 1700-1746 |
| War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1714 | |||
| Joseph Emanuel/ José Manuel | 1750-1777 | Ferdinand VI | 1746-1759 |
| Charles III | King of Sicily, 1734-1759 | ||
| 1759-1788 | |||
| Maria I | 1777-1816 | Charles IV | 1788-1808 |
| Peter/ Pedro III | 1777-1786 | ||
| John/ João VI | Regent 1799-1816 | Ferdinand/ Fernando VII | 1808 |
| French Occupy Portugal & Spain, 1807 | |||
| in Brazil 1807-1821 | Joseph Bonaparte | 1808-1814 | |
| 1816-1826 | Ferdinand VII | restored, 1814-1833 | |
| Peter/Pedro IV / Peter I of Brazil | 1826 | ||
| Emperor of Brazil 1822-1831 | |||
| Maria II | 1826-1828 1834-1853 | ||
| Peter/Pedro II Emperor of Brazil | 1831-1889 | Isabella/ Isabel II | 1833-1868, d.1904 |
| Ferdiniand/ Fernando II | 1837-1853 | ||
| Miguël | 1828-1834 | ||
| Peter/ Pedro V | 1853-1861 | ||
| Louis/Luis | 1861-1889 | First Republic, 1868-1871 | |
| Amadeo of Savoy | 1871-1873 | ||
| Alfonso XII | 1874-1885 | ||
| Charles/ Carlos | 1889-1908 | Alfonso XIII | 1886-1931, d.1941 |
| Manuel II | 1908-1910 d. 1932 | ||
| Republic, 1910-1926 | |||
| Provisional President | |||
| Theophilo Braga | 1910-1911 | ||
| President | |||
| Manoel de Arriaga | 1911-1915 | ||
| Gen. Pimenta de Castro | 1915 | ||
| Bernardino Machado | 1915-1917 | ||
| Gen. Sidonio Pães | 1917-1918 | ||
| Antoio José de Almeida | 1919-1925 | ||
| Bernardino Machado | 1925-1926 | ||
)
Here, in a handsome portrait by Velázquez of 1632, we see King Philip IV of Hapsburg, who presided over the collapse of Spanish hegemony. His greatest fault, however, may have been that of marrying his own niece. The result was the sickly, deformed, and sterile Charles II, who himself decided that the succession of the French Bourbons would turn the trick for Spanish fortunes. However, all it really did was make Spain the junior partner of France, which won little for Spain except breathing room -- and the epic loss of Gibraltar.
A similar alliance with Napoleon only meant that the Spanish as well as the French fleet was destroyed by Nelson at Trafalgar in 1805, followed by Napoleonic betrayal and a French invasion of Spain. The subsequent Peninsular War against France, with the help of Britain, and especially of the Duke of Wellington, was one of the great moments of Spanish history, memorably illustrated by Goya -- Spain has never been short of great artists. However, this proximity to the English did not spell any substantial adoption of English liberal ideas, which are the only things that could have properly pulled Spain into the 19th century, let alone the 20th. Subsequent history is all too familiar from later "underdeveloped" countries, far too much politics and far too little of the rule of law and basic personal and property rights. This culminated in the fiasco of the Spanish Republic and then the Civil War, when socialist nonsense brought on a devastating conservative reaction. As Fascists battled Socialists, and the Socialists were often murdered by Communists, the leftist Cause Celèbre of the late 1930's represented a battle in which Spain would lose no matter which side won. The suspicion, as it happens, is that Stalin really didn't want the Spanish Left to win, since it would have been outside his control. Better that heretics be killed, even in a losing cause. Fortunately for Spain, the victorious Fascist Dictator Franco, although chummy enough with Hitler and Mussolini, was not interested in their War, even when Hilter offered him Gibraltar, free of charge, if he would let Germany attack it by land. This bit of prudent restraint earned Franco a peaceful (if protracted) death in bed in 1975 rather than the more horrible ends of the others in 1945. Now we know that Hitler's own envoy to Franco, Admiral Wilhelm Canaris, whom Hitler later executed, actually advised Franco not to join in Hitler's plans. Thus, Franco, who accepted Canaris' advice, also kept the secret of his betrayal.
| Portugal | Spain | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fascist Dictatorship, 1932-1974 | Second Republic, 1931-1939 | ||||||
| President | Prime Minister | President | |||||
| António Óscar de Fragoso Carmona | 1926-1951 | António de Oliveira Salazar | 1932-1968 | Alcalá Zamora | 1931-1936 | ||
| Manuel Azaña | 1936-1939 | ||||||
| Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939 | |||||||
| Fascist Dictatorship, 1936-1975 | |||||||
| Francisco Franco | 1936-1975 | ||||||
| Francisco Higino Craveiro Lopes | 1951-1958 | ||||||
| Américo de Deus Rodrigues Tomás | 1958-1974 | Marcelo Caetano | 1968-1974 | ||||
| Republic, 1974-present | Prime Minister | ||||||
| António de Spínola | 1974 | Adelino da Palma Carlos | 1974 | Carlos Arias Navarro | 1973-1976 | ||
| Francisco da Costa Gomes | 1974-1976 | Vasco dos Santos Gonçalves | 1974-1975 | ||||
| Monarchy Restored | |||||||
| José Batista Pinheiro de Azevedo | 1975-1976 | Juan Carlos | 1975- | ||||
| António dos Santos Ramalho Eanes | 1976-1986 | Mário Soares | 1976-1978 | Adolfo Suárez González | 1976-1981 | ||
| Alfredo Nobre da Costa | 1978 | ||||||
| Carlos Mota Pinto | 1978-1979 | ||||||
| Maria de Lurdes Pintassilgo | 1979-1980 | ||||||
| Francisco Sá Carneiro | 1980 | ||||||
| Francisco Pinto Balsemão | 1980-1983 | Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo y Bustelo | 1981-1982 | ||||
| Mário Soares | 1983-1985 | Felipe González Márquez | 1982-1996 | ||||
| Mário Soares | 1986-1996 | Aníbal Cavaço Silva | 1985-1995 | ||||
| Jorge Sampaio | 1996-2006 | António Guterres | 1995-2002 | José Marķa Aznar Lopez | 1996-2004 | ||
| Durão Barroso | 2002-2004 | ||||||
| Santana Lopes | 2004-2005 | José Luis Rodrigues Zapatero | 2004- | ||||
| José Sócrates | 2005- | ||||||
| Aníbal Cavaco Silva | 2006- | ||||||
The deaths of both Spanish and Portugese dictators then ushered in the first real periods of democracy in the history of either country. The socialist, if not the communist, temptation was still here, but King Juan Carlos held off conservative coups in Spain, and the people of both countries came a bit more to their senses, although still burdened with the false ideals of Euro-socialist regimes like France. With a long history of trying to ignore the government, as in Italy, the Spanish economy may have been healthier, thanks to off-the-books transactions, than other statistics (like official unemployment, 22.5%) might have shown. Nevertheless, this still imposed a cultural as well as a political burden on Spain and Portugal really rising to a competitive level in the world economy. Now, however, Prime Minster Aznar has begun to be spoken of together with Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher. Slashing taxes in 1997, the Spanish economy kicked up quickly. Although the 2001 (official) unemployment rate, at 14%, was still virtually a Depression level, the economy was growing at over 3% a year, almost twice as quickly as France. This may be just what Spain needs to join the ranks of heathiest economies, as well as healthiest democracies.
The Economist of July 26th-August 1st 2003 reported Spanish unemployment at 11.3%. This was actually better than Belgium (11.6%), and excellent considering that French and German unemployment had increased over the previous year. Spanish growth had slowed (2.1% over the last year), but the global economy was weak at the time. In 2005, the The Economist of October 8th-14th shows Spanish unemployment down to 9.4%. This is not great compared to the better economies, but it is now better than France (9.9%) and Germany (11.7%) as well as Belgium (13.5%). Meanwhile, Spanish GDP growth was 3.4%. This is better than any of the other 15 developed economies listed by The Economist, excepting only the United States (3.6%). Indeed, Spain and the United States are the only ones with growth greater than 3%. In 2003, The Economist listed both Spain and Portugal with the same Economic Freedom Index, putting them ahead of Italy, Taiwan, and Japan, though behind Sweden, Austria, and Germany. This is, at least, a good competitive position.
Spain took a turn for the worse politically (if not economically) on March 14, 2004, with the election of a Socialist government. This seems to have happened because of a terrorist attack the previous week (3/11), when rush hour trains in Madrid were bombed, killing 200 some Spaniards. The conventional wisdom is that Prime Minister Aznar was blamed for this, because he had sided with the United States in the war on terror and sent Spanish troops to Iraq. In the days before the election, the Socialists accused the government of concealing evidence that al-Qaeda was behind the bombings. The strange meaning of all this appears to be that al-Qaeda, which many on the Left have said had nothing to do with Iraq, has attacked Spain for being in Iraq, so that Spain should get out of Iraq so that al-Qaeda will not target it again. This goes along with the leftist notion in the United States that we were attacked by fanatics just because we made them mad. If we didn't make them mad, they would stop attacking. Unfortunately, what makes Osama bin Laden mad are Western ideals of liberty and toleration, and the presence of non-Muslims in the Middle East. (When honest, the leftists add "globalization" and capitalism as the things that properly anger the Islamists.) Since the new Socialist Prime Minister, Zapatero, has promised to remove Spanish troops from Iraq, Spain will now join France on the path of appeasement and wishful thinking. Senator Joel Lieberman, Democratic Vice Presidential candidate in 2000, said that Madrid could have been the equivalent of either Pearl Harbor or Munich -- Pearl Harbor to energize resistance to terrorism, or Munich to give up and join the appeasers. Survey says: Munich.
Late in 2004, a Basque bombing campaign began again. Basque terrorists at least give warning of bombs, so there was not the loss of life of March 11. But it is hard not to think that the Basques simply hope to benefit from the spirit of appeasement for their own cause. At the same time, Spain isn't off the hook with the Islamists. Osama bin Laden has always demanded the return of Andalusia to Islâm. Since Granada fell in 1492, it is hard to imagine how the United States could be blamed for that.
In 2007 we find King Juan Carlos suddenly in the international political spotlight. At a summit meeting in Santiago, Chile, the would-be Castroite dictator of Venezuela, Hugo Chávez, first called former Prime Minister of Spain Aznar a "fascist." Current Prime Minister Zapatero spoke up for Aznar, saying that he was a properly elective representative of the Spanish people. Chávez kept talking, even though he did not have the floor and his microphone was turned off. Juan Carlos, sitting back inconspicuously next to Zapatero, suddenly leans forward, popping into camera view, and tells Chávez, "¿Por qué no te callas?" "Why don't you be quiet?" This was the perfect putdown to the clownish but vicious neo-communist Chávez and is now featured as a ringtone on many Spanish cellphones -- as well as providing a slogan to anti-Chávez Venezuelans. Decades after the end of real Fascism in Spain, it is great to see the King still calling the right shots.
St. Ferdinand III was 
the King of Castile and León responsible for the conquest of the heartland of Islâmic Spain: Andalusia. "San Fernando Rey de España" was the name given to one of the Franciscan missions in California -- the King is shown, at right, in glory above the altar of the Mission. From it is derived the name of the San Fernando Valley, which is largely occupied by the City of Los Angeles, together with the independent cities of San Fernando, Burbank, Glendale, and Calabasas. Near the center of the Valley is Los Angeles Valley College, the mailing address for The Proceedings of the Friesian School, Fourth Series. The San Fernando Valley is ringed by the Santa Monica, Santa Susana, San Gabriel, and Verdugo Mountains and the Chatsworth and Hollywood Hills. The Los Angeles River rises in the Valley and flows out through Burbank and Glendale. Although the River normally runs nearly dry, flash floods do occur occasionally during the winter. A flood control network consequently was constructed after devastating flooding in 1938. The most conspicuous feature in the network is the Sepulveda Dam, which has been used in countless movies, television shows, and commercials to represent, not just dams, but military fortifications or even prisons as well. It is conspicuously featured, as a dam, in the 2003 movie The Italian Job. Ferdinand's connections by marriage to other European royality, and the Comneni, can be examined in a popup.
England,
Scotland 
,
Ireland 
, and the
United Kingdom 
,
445 AD-Present
The Roman withdrawal from Britain left the island outside of history for some centuries. Three kingdoms of Angles (Northumbria, Mercia, & East Anglia), three of Saxons (Essex, Sussex, & Wessex), and one of the Jutes (Kent) eventually fell to Kings of Wessex, or to the Danes. King Egbert of Wessex, who had spent time in exile at the court of Charlemagne, came to be considered the first true King of England. Meanwhile, these invaders had converted to Christianity and become literate.
The conversion was due to the mission of St. Augustine, who was sent by Pope Gregory the Great and founded the see of Canterbury (at the capital of Kent). Meanwhile, however, the rest of the British Isles had already been converted to Christianity. Ireland, which was never Roman and 
was converted by St. Patrick in the 5th century, developed its own literate Christian culture and, in the person of St. Columba in the 6th century, proceeded to proselytize Scotland. Unfortunately, Ireland was never politically unified enough to follow cultural and religious influence with political power, or to fully resist incursions from Danes or Normans, or ambitious English dynasties, when they came. The Kings of all Ireland, as opposed to the kings of what later became counties (Munster, Connacht, etc.), were the "High Kings" (Ard Ri). 
They drew together the smaller kingdoms of the island, but a permanently unified Kingdom of Ireland was never fully established. The reign of Brian Baru, perhaps the high point of Irish unity and power, also seems to be the end of effective Irish organization. Henry II of England, whose Normans began to overrun the island, styled himself "Lord of Ireland" (c. 1172). The last High King, Rory O'Connor, deferred to Henry. In 1541 Henry VIII adopted the title "King of Ireland."
The history of Scotland began in the 5th century with an interesting 
combination of the Picts, who had never been under Roman rule, Britons, i.e. Celtic survivors of Roman Britain, and the Scots, who came over from Ireland and founded the kingdom of Dál Riata, which shared its name with their kingdom in Northern Ireland. It looks like the nobility of the Picts and Scots began to blend, and eventually the kingdoms consolidated, but with the language of the Scots gradually predominating, and then absorbing the Britons also. This phase of Scottish history is addressed on a separate Scotia webpage. The kings of Scotland ultimately succeeded to the throne of England itself. Wales, in effect the last piece of Roman Britain, was annexed by England as a principality. The heir to the throne of Britain is still styled the Prince of Wales. Some early Welsh history is addressed below.
The earliest history and dates for Ireland are legendary and speculative. Niall Noígillach "of the Nine Hostages" may have lived in the previous century, and the dates given for St. Patrick depend on identifying him with a "Palladius," who is mentioned by a contemporary chronicler as having been sent by the Pope as the first bishop of the Irish. If Patrick was not this person, he would have lived shortly thereafter. For the genealogy of the Irish High Kings, see below.
I have found an outstanding source for all British and Irish rulers, and some other royalty and nobility, in The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens by Mike Ashley [Carroll & Graf Publishers, Inc., New York, 1998, 1999]. The treatment of Anglo-Saxon and Irish kings now has been corrected and updated using this book down to the end of the Plantagenets. The Irish (Gaelic) spelling of many of the names of the High Kings of Ireland, however, is derived from Bruce R. Gordon's Regnal Chronologies. Here I have only given two English kingdoms, Kent and Wessex, because these are the first and the last ones, respectively, because Kent contains the Archbishop of Canterbury, 
the Primate of England, and because there is no room for the parallel listing of more. Most of the other kingdoms, however, Sussex, Bernicia, Deira, Northumbria, Essex, Mercia, and East Anglia, are given on a separate Anglo-Saxon England page with other early German Kingdoms.
Although Britain was never an "empire," Queen Victoria did assume the imperial title for India, as successor to the Moghuls, in 1876. The House of York is shown in white as a reminder that York was the White Rose, as Lancaster was the Red Rose, in the War of the Roses. Since the House of Stuart was Scottish, it is shown in yellow for Scotland.
| Kings of Kent Jutes | Kings of Wessex Saxons | High Kings of Ireland | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Niall Noígillach of the Nine Hostages | 379-405, Tara | ||||
| Dathi/Nath I | 405-428 | ||||
| Hengest | c.455-488 | Lóeguire macNéill | 429-463 | ||
| St. Patrick, mission to Ireland, 432; d. 461 | |||||
| Oisc, Oeric (Aesc) | c.488-516 | Ailill Motl mac Nath I | 463-483 | ||
| Octha | c.516-540 | Cerdic | c.538-554 | Lugaid macLóeguiri O'Néill | 483-507 |
| Muirchertach macErcae O'Néill | 507-534 | ||||
| Eormenric | c.540-580 | Cynric | c.554-581 | Tuathal Máelgarb macCorpri Cáech O'Néill | 534-544 |
| Diarmait macCerbaill O'Néill | 544-565 | ||||
| St. Columba, mission to Scotland, 563; d. 597 | |||||
| St. Æthelbert I | c.580-616 | Ceawlin | c.581-588 d.c.589 | Domnall macMuirchertaig O'Néill | 565-566 |
| Forggus macMuirchertaig O'Néill | 565-566 | ||||
| Ainmere macSátnai O'Néill | 566-569 | ||||
| Báetán macMuirchertaig O'Néill | 569-572 | ||||
| Eochaid macDomnaill O'Néill | 569-572 | ||||
| Báetán macNinnedo O'Néill | 572-581 | ||||
| Ceol | 588-594 | Aed macAinmerech O'Néill | 581-598 | ||
| Ceolwulf | 594-611 | Aed Sláine macDiarmato O'Néill | 598-604 | ||
| Colmán Rímid macBáetáin O'Néill | rival, 598-604 | ||||
| Aed Uaridnach macDomnaill O'Néill | 604-612 | ||||
| St. Augustine of Canterbury, mission to England, 597; d. 605 | |||||
| Eadbald | 616-640 | Cynegils | 611-643 | Máel Cobo macAedo O'Néill | 612-615 |
| Suibne Menn macFiachnai O'Néill | 615-628 | ||||
| Domnall macAedo O'Néill | 628-642 | ||||
| Earconbert | 640-664 | Cenwealh | 643-672 | Conall Cóel macMáele Cobo O'Néill | 642-654 |
| Cellach macMáele Cobo O'Néill | jointly, 642-658 | ||||
| Diarmait macAedo Sláine O'Néill | jointly, 656-665 | ||||
| Blathmac macAedo Sláine O'Néill | jointly, 656-665 | ||||
| Sechnussach macBlathmaic O'Néill | 665-671 | ||||
| Egbert I | 664-673 | Seaxburh | Queen, 672-673 | Cenn Fáelad macBlathmaic O'Néill | 671-675 |
| Hlothhere | 673-685 | Aescwine | 674-676 | Finsnechtae Fledach macDúnchada O'Néill | 675-695 |
| Centwine | 676-685, d.? | ||||
| Eadric | 685-686 | ||||
| 686-687 | Caedwalla (Peter) | 685-687 d.688 in Rome | |||
| Mul | 686-687 | Ine | 688-726 d.728 in Rome | ||
| Sigehere | King of Essex, 687-688 | ||||
| Oswine | 688-690 | ||||
| Swaefheard | 689-692 | ||||
| Wihtred | 691-725 | Loingsech macOengus O'Néill | 695-704 | ||
| Congal Cinn Magir macFergus Fánat O'Néill | 704-710 | ||||
| Fergal macMáele Dúin O'Néill | 710-722 & Ailech | ||||
| Fogartach macNéill O'Néill | 722-724 | ||||
| Cináed mac Irgalaig | 724-728 | ||||
| Æthelbert II | 725-748, c.754-762 | Æthelheard | 728-740 | Flaithbbertach macLoingsig O'Néill | 724-734 d.765 |
| Aed Allán macFergal O'Néill | 734-743 | ||||
| Eadberht I | 725-c.762 | Domnall Midi O'Néill | 743-763 | ||
| Ealric | 725-? | ||||
| Eardwulf | c.748-754 | Cuthred | 740-756 | ||
| Sigered | 759-763 | Sigebert | 756-757 | ||
| Ealhmund | 762-764, c.784-785 | Cynewulf | 756-786 | ||
| Heaberht | 764-c.771 | Niall Frossach macFergal O'Néill | 763-770 d.778 | ||
| Egbert II | 764-c.784 | Donnchad Midi macDomnaill Midi O'Néill | 770-797 | ||
| Offa | King of Mercia, 757-796 | Beorhtric | 786-802 | ||
| c.785-796 | |||||
| Eadberht II | 796-798 | First Viking raid, sacking of Lindisfarne Monastery, 793 | Aed Oirdnide macNéill Frossach O'Néill | 797-819 | |
| Cuthred of Mercia | 798-807 | Egbert | 802-839 | Conchobar macDonnchado Midi O'Néill | 819-833 |
| Mercia, 807-823 | King of England, 829-839 | Niall Caille macAedo Oirdnide O'Néill | 833-846 | ||
| Baldred | 823-825 | ||||
| 825-839 | Æthelwulf | England, 839-855 | |||
What follows is the genealogy of the O'Néill (Uí Néill, O'Neal) High Kings of Ireland down to Máel Sechnaill (980-1002, 1014-1022). The table is based on genealogies in A New History of Ireland, Volume IX, Maps, Genealogies, Lists -- a Companion to Irish History, Part II [Oxford University Press, 1984, 2002, pp.127, 128, 130]. The very earliest dates disagree with the table above, which is from Bruce Gordon. However, we see a correspondence with the death in 463 of Lóeguire macNéill, the third King according to Gordon and the second according to the Oxford History; and we begin to get complete agreement with the death of Lugaid macLóeguiri (the fifth Oxford King) in 507. If the Oxford dates are correct, and we have the right date for St. Patrick, his mission in Ireland began before the advent of any of the High Kings -- which is reasonable when we reflect that St. Patrick's mission is probably what would have resulted in the first written chronicles.
Brian Boru follows Máel Sechnaill as High King. He was a King of Munster and Thomond and not an O'Néill. Subsequent High Kings, down to Rory O'Connor, include some O'Néills but also other families. Obviously, any kind of hereditary succession is long gone. As in Poland, this signifies grave political fragmentation. However, the O'Néills did not die out. 
The Earls of Tyrone were descendants of the High King Domnall ua Neill (956-980). Hugh (Aodh) O'Neill (d.1616), Earl of Tyrone, led a revolt against the English in 1593-1603 and fled the country with its failure. Eventually, O'Neills descended from him became peers of Portugal and Spain. Ironically, the "Red Hand of Ulster," which has become a symbol of Protestant Ireland, is from the arms of the O'Neill family. There are various legends about the origin of the Red Hand. They seem to go back to Irish mythology, as even in Roman mythology (or Star Wars) there are stories of the sacrifice of a hand by the hero. In the Irish legends some kind of race or competition is usually involved. The hero, or an Ó'Neill, of the story wins the competition by cutting off his own hand and throwing it ahead to pass the finish line or claim the goal or prize first. This seems like a lot to do to win a race, but some versions involve claiming a kingdom (like Ulster, or Ireland itself).
| Kings of Gwynedd | |
|---|---|
| Rhodri the Great | 844-878 |
| Anarawd ap Rhodri | 878-916 |
| Idwal the Bald | 916-942 |
| Hywel Dda | King of Deheubarth, 920-950 |
| 942-950 | |
| Iago ab Idwal | 950-979 |
| Ieuaf ab Idwal | 950-969 |
| Hywel ap Ieuaf | 974-985 |
| Cadwallon ap Ieuaf | 985-986 |
| Maredudd ap Owain | King of Deheubarth, 986-999 |
| 986-999 | |
| Cynan ap Hywel | 999-1005 |
| Llywelyn ap Seisyll | 1005-1023 |
| Iago ap Idwal | 1023-1039 |
| Gruffydd ap Llywelyn | 1039-1063 |
| Bleddyn ap Cynfyn | 1063-1075 |
| Rhiwallon ap Cynfyn | 1063-1070 |
| Trahern ap Caradog | 1075-1081 |
| Gruffydd ap Cynan | 1081-1137 |
| Owain Gwynedd | 1137-1170 |
| Maelgwyn ab Owain | 1170-1173 |
| Dafydd ab Owain | 1170-1195, d.1203 |
| Rhodri ab Owain | 1170-1190, d.1195 |
| Llywelyn the Great | 1195-1240 |
| Prince of Wales, 1216-1240 | |
| Dafydd ap Llywelyn | 1240-1246 |
| Llywelyn the Last ap Gryffydd | 1246-1282 |
| Prince of Wales, 1258-1282 | |
| Owain ap Gruffydd | 1246-1255, 1277-1282 |
| Dafydd ap Gruffydd | 1282-1283 |
| Conquest by England, 1283 | |
| Edward, II of England | Prince of Wales, 1301-1307 |
| King of England, 1307-1327 | |
"Wales" is a Germanic name, simply meaning non-German or Roman, used in English. Wales itself in Welsh is Cymru which is recognizable as the Roman name of the region, Cambria. Welsh belongs to the Brythonic group of Celtic languages, related to Cornish in Cornwall (now extinct), Breton in Brittany, and probably to the Pictish languages of early Scotland, but not to Scotch Gaelic itself (which is derived from Irish).
Wales consisted of a number of small kingdoms since at least the 5th century. Gwynedd and Deheubarth became the principal states, with Gwynedd eventually predominating. A united and independent Wales, however, only survived briefly, until Edward I of England definitively annexed the country in 1283. The capital of Wales now is Cardiff, in the south, but Edward built Caernarvon Castle in Gwynedd to control the country. Edward is supposed to have promised the Welsh in 1284 that he would provide a prince for them born in Wales who did not speak a word of English. He then produced his son Edward, just born at Caenarvon, who of course didn't speak a word of anything. Edward was formally invested as Prince of Wales in 1301.
The descent of the Tudors from Welsh royalty is shown, but there are some uncertainties about this. The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens gives it [p.331] as though unproblematic, but Brian Tompsett's Royal and Noble genealogy gives an alternate descent and discusses other uncertainties. While the Welsh derivation of the Tudors is beyond doubt, one suspects that Henry VII or others might not be above manufacturing a royal version of the descent. While the main line of the Tudors died out, it will be noted below that all subsequent British royality is descended from Henry VII through his daughter Margaret and her husband, King James IV of Scotland.
| Kings of England Saxons | Kings of Scotland, Kingdom of Alba | High Kings of Ireland | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ethelwulf/ Æðelwulf | 839-855 | Kenneth MacAlpin | 840-858 | Máel Sechnaill macMáele Ruanaid O'Néill | 846-862 Mide |
| Æthelbald | 855-860 | Donald I | 858-863 | ||
| Æthelbert | 860-865 | Constantine I | 863-877 | Aed Findliath macNéill Caille O'Néill | 862-879 Ailech |
| Æthelred I | 865-871 | Aed | 877-878 | ||
| Danish invasion, 866, establishment of the Danelaw | |||||
| Alfred/Ælfred the Great | 871-899 | Eochaid & Giric I | 878-889 | Flann Sionna macMáele Sechnaill O'Néill | 879-916 Mide |
| defeat of the Danes, 878 | |||||
| Eadweard/ Edward the Elder | 899-924 | Donald II | 899-900 | Niall Glúndubh macAedo Findliath O'Néill | 916-919 Ailech |
| recovery of East Anglia from the Danes, 917 | |||||
| Elfweard/ Æthelward | 924 | Constantine II | 900-943 | Donnchad Donn macFlann O'Néill | 919-944 |
| Æthelstan | 924-939 | ||||
| recovery of York from the Danes, 927-939 | |||||
| Edmund I | 939-946 | Malcolm I | 943-954 | Ruaidrí ua Canannáin | rival, 944-950 |
| Eadred | 946-955 | Indulf | 954-962 | Congalach Cnogba macMáel Mithig O'Néill | 944-956 |
| final recovery of York from the Danes, 954 | |||||
| Edwy/Eadwig the Fair | 955-959 | Dubh | 962-c.966 | Domnall macMuirchertaig O'Néill | 956-980 |
| Edgar | 959-975 | Cuilean Ring | c.966-971 | ||
| Edward the Martyr | 975-978 | Kenneth II | 971-995 | Máel Sechnaill macDomnaill O'Néill | 980-1002, 1014-1022 |
| Ethelred/ Æðelred II the Unready | 978-1013, 1014-1016 | Constantine III the Bald | 995-997 | ||
| Danish occupation, 1013-1014 | Kenneth III | 997-1005 | Brian Bóruma macCennétig, Brian Boru | Munster, 976-1014; High King, 1002-1014 | |
| Edmund II Ironside | 1016 | Giric II | 997-1005 | ||
| Danes | Malcolm II | 1005-1034 | |||
| Canute the Great | 1016-1035 | Killed in victory over Danes at Clontarf, 1014 | |||
| King of Denmark 1018-1035 | Donnchad MacBrian | Munster, 1022-1063; d.1064 | |||
| Harold I | 1035-1040 | Duncan I | 1034-1040 | ||
| Hardecanute | King of Denmark 1035-1042 | ||||
| 1040-1042 | |||||
The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens shows the descent of Godwin of Wessex from King Æthelred I as though it is not problematic [p.468]. There is no discussion o
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