The Eponymous Archons of Athens
| 528 Philoneos |
| 527 Onetorides |
| 526 Hippias |
| 525 Kleisthenes |
| 524 Miltiades |
| 523 Kalliades? |
| 522 Peisistratos? |
| 497 Archias |
| 496 Hipparchos |
| 495 Philippos |
| 494 Pythokritos |
| 493 Themistokles |
| 492 Diognetos |
| 491 Hybrilides |
| 490 Phainippos |
| 489 Aristeides |
| 488 Anchises |
| 487 Telesines |
| 486 ? |
| 485 Philokrates |
| 484 Leostratos |
| 483 Nikodemos |
| 482 ? |
| 481 Hypsichides |
| 480 Kalliades |
| 479 Xanthippos |
| 479 Timosthenes |
| 477 Adeimantos |
| 476 Phaidon |
| 475 Dromokleides |
| 474 Akestorides |
| 473 Menon |
| 472 Chares |
| 471 Praxiergos |
| 470 Demotion |
| 469 Apsephion |
| 468 Theagenides |
| 467 Lysistratos |
| 466 Lysanias |
| 465 Lysitheos |
| 464 Archedemides |
| 463 Tlepolemos |
| 462 Konon |
| 461 Euthippos |
| 460 Phrasikleides |
| 459 Philokles |
| 458 Habron |
| 457 Mnesitheides |
| 456 Kallias |
| 455 Sosistratos |
| 454 Ariston |
| 453 Lysikrates |
| 452 Chairephines |
| 451 Antidotos |
| 450 Euthynos |
| 449 Pedieus |
| 448 Philiskos |
| 447 Timarchides |
| 446 Kallimachos |
| 445 Lysimachides |
| 444 Praxiteles |
| 443 Lysanias |
| 442 Diphilos |
| 353 Thudemos |
| 352 Aristodemos |
| 351 Theellos |
| 350 Apollodoros |
| 349 Kallimachos |
| 348 Theophilos |
| 347 Themistokles |
| 346 Archias |
| 345 Eubulos |
| 344 Lykiskos |
| 343 Pythodotos |
| 342 Sosigenes
|
| 341 Nikomachos |
| 340 Theophrastos |
| 339 Lysimachides |
| 338 Chairondas |
| 337 Phrynichos |
| 336 Pythodelos |
| 335 Euainetos |
| 334 Ktesikles |
| 333 Nikokrates |
| 332 Niketes |
| 331 Aristophanes |
| 330 Aristophon |
| 329 Kephisophon |
| 328 Euthykritos |
| 327 Hegemon |
| 326 Chremes |
| 325 Antikles |
| 324 Hegesias |
| 323 Kephisodoros |
| 322 Philokles |
| 321 Archippos |
| 320 Neaichmos |
| 319 Apollodoros |
| 318 Archippos |
| 317 Demogenes |
| 316 Demokleides |
| 315 Praxibulos |
| 314 Nikodoros |
| 313 Theophrastos |
| 312 Polemon |
| 311 Simonides |
| 310 Hieromnemon |
| 309 Demetrios |
| 308 Charinos |
| 307 Anaxikrates |
| 306 Koroibos |
| 305 Euxenippos |
| 304 Pherekles |
| 303 Leostratos |
| 302 Nikokles |
| 301 Klearchos |
| 300 Hegemachos |
| 299 Euktemon |
| 298 Mnesidemos |
| 297 Antiphates |
| 296 Nikias |
| 295 Nikostratos |
| 294 Olympiodoros |
| 293 Olympiodoros II |
| 292 Philippos |
| 415 Charias |
| 414 Teisandros |
| 413 Kleokritos |
| 412 Kallias |
411 Mnesilochos
& Theopompos |
| 410 Glaukippos |
| 409 Diokles |
| 408 Euktemon |
| 407 Antigenes |
| 406 Kallias |
| 405 Alexias |
| 404 Pythodoros |
| 403 Eukleides |
| 402 Mikon |
| 401 Xenainetos |
| 400 Laches |
| 399 Aristokrates |
| 398 Euthykles |
| 397 Suniades |
| 396 Phormion |
| 395 Diophantos |
| 394 Eubulides |
| 393 Demostratos |
| 392 Philokles |
| 391 Nikoteles |
| 390 Demostratos |
| 389 Antipatros |
| 388 Pyrgion |
| 387 Theodotos |
| 386 Mystichides |
| 385 Dexitheos |
| 384 Diotrephes |
| 383 Phanostratos |
| 382 Euandros |
| 381 Demophilos |
| 380 Pytheas |
| 379 Nikon |
| 378 Nausinikos |
| 377 Kalleas |
| 376 Charisandros |
| 375 Hippodamas |
| 374 Sokratides |
| 373 Asteios |
| 372 Alkisthenes |
| 371 Phrasikleides |
| 370 Dysniketos |
| 369 Lysistratos |
| 368 Nausigenes |
| 367 Polyzelos |
| 366 Kephisodoros |
| 365 Chion |
| 364 Timokrates |
| 363 Charikleidcs |
| 362 Molon |
| 361 Nikophemos |
| 360 Kallimedes |
| 359 Eucharistos |
| 358 Kephisodotos |
| 357 Agathokles |
| 356 Elpines |
| 355 Kallistratos |
| 354 Diotimos |
There were nine archons (árkhon = ruler, regent, commander) in the classic constitution at Athens. Six were judges, the Thesmothetae. The other three were the Polemarch (polémarkhos, "war leader," the third archon), who was the commander-in-chief, the King (basileús, the second archon), who succeeded to the religious duties of the original Kings of Athens, and the Eponymous (epónymos) Archon, the first archon, after whom the year was named.
No Greeks, or anyone else at the time, used a continuous Era in dating. The closest to that were regal years of Kings, like the Kings of Egypt. The first continuous Era was that of Seleucus I, one of Alexander the Great's generals and successors. This was the Seleucid Era, which continued to be used long after the Seleucids were gone. At Athens, the offices were annual, so there would be no numberings of anyone. Each year had its own unique Eponymous ("upon the name") Archon. Any duplication of names would be very confusing, but there are some examples of that. There was a Themistokles who was Archon in 493, and another one in 347. These are unlikely to have been the same individual, and perhaps the lapse of 146 years was regarded as sufficient to prevent confusion.
The list here goes from 528 down to 292 BC. It is from E.J. Bickerman, Chronology of the Ancient World [Cornell Univesity Press, 1968-1982], pp. 138-139. Since Athens continued to function with its traditional offices after 292, there must be further Archons. I am unaware why Bickerman's list comes to an end. Either the Classical sources cease giving the names, or they may be regarded to too unimportant. Bickerman does gives the Kings of Sparta down to their end in 192.
| 441 Timokles |
| 440 Morychides |
| 439 Glaukinos |
| 438 Theodoros |
| 437 Euthymenes |
| 436 Lysimachos |
| 435 Antiochides |
| 434 Krates |
| 433 Apseudes |
| 432 Pythodoros |
| 431 Euthydemos |
| 430 Apollodoros |
| 429 Epameinon |
| 428 Diotimos |
| 427 Eukles Molonos |
| 426 Euthynos |
| 425 Stratokles |
| 424 Isarchos |
| 423 Ameinias |
| 422 Alkaios |
| 421 Aristion |
| 420 Astyphilos |
| 419 Archias |
| 418 Antiphon |
| 417 Euphemos |
| 416 Arimnestos |
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Dialects of Greek
Classical Greek was one language, but it consisted of a number of dialects. These are shown on the accompanying map. The principal divisions are between Aeolic, Ionic, and Doric. Doric is mainly in the south, from the Peloponnesus 
down to Crete and up to Rhodes. Aeolic is in the northeast, and Ionic across the center, from Attica to the area on the mainland of Asia actually called "Ionia," with colonized areas up in the north. More closely related to Doric is North- western Greek, which stretches from the north side of the Peloponnesus into the mountains north of the Gulf of Corinth. The light blue area shows where we get a mixture of Doric and Northwestern. Very significant areas, Thessaly and Boeotia, see mixture and interpenetration of Aeolic and Northwestern. These are shown in brick red.
The Ionic dialect of Athens, Attic, is distinctive. Attic Greek is the language of the bulk of Golden Age Greek literature, and it is what students study when they begin to study Classical Greek. The word for "day" in Attic is hêméra (with the circumflex simply to indicate the long vowel). This contrasts with haméra in Doric and êmérê in the Ionic of Ionia. Attic is also different from the rest of Ionic in having "tt" for "ss" -- as in thálatta for thálassa, "sea," or glôtta for glôssa, "tongue, language." The Greeks believed that the Ionians had long lived where they did but that the Dorians had arrived rather late. Indeed, another Greek dialect, not shown on the map, is "Epic" Greek, the language of the Iliad and the Odyssey. Epic Greek is more like Ionic and Aeolic than the other dialects. Classical Greek culture, including philosophy, began in Ionia, whose name became the word for "Greek" in all the languages to the East, e.g. al-Yûnân is "the Greeks" in Modern Arabic. Of the various versions of the Greek alphabet, the one from Ionia (which characteristically writes X for khi rather than ksi) became standard for later forms of Greek.
Even more intriguing is a dialect isolated in the heart of the Peloponnesus, Arcadian. Surrounded by Doric and Northwestern, Arcadian is nevertheless similar to Cypriot, the dialect of Greek spoken in Cyprus. This suggests that Arcadian was the original language of the south of Greece, overrun and isolated by the Doric invasion. On Cyprus the Greeks also used a unique syllabary to write their language. This turns out have similarities to the Linear B script that was used to write Mycenaean Greek, a dialect of Greek that itself appears to be the closest to Arcadian and Cypriot. Arcadian and Cypriot thus date back to the days of the twilight of the Minoan civilization of Crete. The affinities of the Minoan language, written in the undeciphered Linear A script, have not been identified. As Crete declined, evidently after the eruption of the great volcano on the island of Thera (c.1500 BC), the Greeks took over; but a smooth transition from Mycenaean Greece to later times was disrupted by the Doric invasion. Writing was lost (outside of Cyprus) and the Greek Dark Age followed until the Phoenician alphabet was borrowed around 800 BC.
In the Hellenistic Age, all the dialects of Greek began to be replaced by the koiné or "common" dialect, which was principally Ionic with some Attic touches. This is the language of the New Testament. In later centuries, writers, to demonstrate their erudition, would use forms that had only existed in Attic, "Atticisms" -- sometimes even false Atticisms. Although the Koiné was spoken all around the Eastern Mediterranean world for centuries, Modern Greek is the only modern language descended from Classical Greek.
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Tyrants and Kings of Syracuse
| Cleander | Tyrant,
Gela, 505-498 |
| Hippocrates | 498-491 |
| Gelon I | Gela, 491-485;
Syracuse, 485-478 |
| Heiron I | Gela, 485-466;
Syracuse, 478-466 |
| Thrasybulus | 466-465, deposed |
Democracy, 465-405;
Athenian Siege, 415-413;
War with Carthage, 409-405 |
|---|
| Dionysius I | 405-367 |
War with Carthage, 396-392;
Plato's 1st visit, c.388 |
|---|
| Dionysius II | 367-357,
347-344, deposed |
Plato's 2nd visit, c.366;
Plato's 3rd visit, 360 |
|---|
| Dion | 357-354, d.351 |
| Callippus | 354-353, d.351 |
| Hipparinus | 353-351 |
| Nysaeus | 351-347, deposed |
| Timoleon | 344-337, deposed |
| Democracy, 337-317 |
|---|
| Agathocles | Tyrant, 317-304;
King, 304-289 |
| Democracy, 289-270 |
|---|
| Hieron II | 270-215 |
First Punic War, 264-241;
Second Punic War, 218-201 |
|---|
| Gelon II | coregent, c.216 |
| Hieronymus | 215-214 |
Roman siege and
conquest, 213-212 |
|---|
Syracuse was the greatest Greek city in Sicily, the scene of a number of epic events in Greek history. The first with distant historical effects was the attempt of the Athenians to take the city in 415-413. This was an episode in the Peloponnesian War (431-404) between Athens and Sparta. The first phase of the War, the Archidamian War, had ended in 421. The attack on Syracuse was an attempt to restart the war by taking out an ally of Sparta, as proposed by Alcibiades (d.404). The catastrophic failure of the siege, and the destruction of the Athenian army and fleet, began the second phase, the Decelean War, 413-404, much to the disadvantage and ultimate defeat of Athens.
The map is from the Atlas of Classical History, edited by Richard J.A. Talbert [Routledge, 1985, 1989, p.39]. It shows details of the Athenian siege, with the walls later added by the great Tyrant Dionysius I.
Around 388 a Greek visitor arrived at the court of Dionysius, the philosopher Plato (c.429-347). Plato got involved in trying to educate the son of the tyrant, who would shortly become Dionysius II, in philosophy and responsible statesmanship. Plato returned a couple of times as part of the effort, but it didn't turn out very well. Plato's friend Dion, who launched a coup against the tyrant, was killed and Plato was left with a very bad impression of the whole business -- "But the requests of tyrants are coupled, as we know, with compulsory powers," as Plato says in Epistle VII, written to Dion's friends. This helped confirm Plato in his determination to stay out of Athenian politics.
Associated with Dionysius II we also have the story of Damocles, whom Dionysius had sit under a suspended sword to show him that a tyrant lived in constant apprehension of assassination.
The fate of Syracuse would ultimately be settled by Rome. King Hieron II successfully navagated the First Punic War and the beginning of the Second. After his death, however, with Hannibal looking like a winner, Syracuse went over to Carthage. This was a bad idea, and after a heroic siege, Syracuse became a Roman possession. A sad and ugly episode occurred when M. Claudius Marcellus took the city in 212. Archemides (287-212), probably the greatest mathematician of antiquity (often said to have nearly invented calculus), had used his powers of invention to create engines that helped withstand the Roman siege for three years. Before the city fell, Marcellus instructed his men to respect Archemides, but the great man was killed, for various legendary reasons, when a Roman soldier found him.
Curiously, Archimedes has a place in the history of California. Hieron was suspicious that a crown he had ordered was not made with the pure gold he had provided, but that some of the gold had been replaced. The weight of the crown was what it was supposed to be, so Hieron ordered Archimedes to figure out a test that could be performed on the finished object. Any base metal used would have a different density than the gold, so if the volume of the crown could be determined, this would show whether it was pure gold. Unfortunately, the crown, if 
it was like Greek royal crowns, was a construction of gold leaves, whose density could not be determined from a direct measurement of the volume. The story is that Archimedes, relaxing in the bath, realized that the density of the crown could be determined, like Archimedes in his bath, by submerging it in water, which would displace an amount of water equal to its volume. Archimedes leaped out of the bath and ran down the street naked, shouting Eureka, "I have found [it]." "Eureka" is now the motto of the State of California, shown on the Great Seal of the State just above the goddess Athena (of all people).
The list of tyrants and kings is from the Oxford Dynasties of the World by John E. Morby [Oxford University Press, 1989, 2002, p.94].
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